A Treatise on Ecological Science

Ecological systems (populations and communities) interact with each other. These entities can be viewed as networks and ecosystems as ‘networks of networks’. Ecological networks share common properties with other networks; e.g., Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). WSNs consist of receivers and transmitters of information at locations called nodes. These nodes transmit and receive information with each other in ‘packets’. In the context of ecology, these packets contain material and energy; e.g., the bird from the bird sanctuary (20 kms away from my residence) being caught by the cat for food. Elements of network theory which are essential for applications to ecological networks are introduced. Decisions of animal movements and observed patterns of movement can be better explored in this framework. Although these networks have complex architecture, their hierarchical nature admits well-defined patterns that illuminate mechanisms of functioning of ecosystems. Applications of network theory would advance the understanding of complex interactions between species; ‘tangled banks’ of nature.

Ecological networks are simulated. These simulation experiments illuminate observed patterns of movement. A network of social interactions and a network of movement patterns are explored to know how movement decisions are taken.

Changes in an organism’s DNA can influence all aspects of its life. Mutations serve as raw material for genetic variability and its evolution. These are caused by high-energy radiation. Chemical substances present in the environment are other potential causative agents. They may also occur during DNA replication. Radiation damage has increased many folds after the advent of cellular telephony. Genes are DNA molecules. These molecules are distributed on the chromosomes of individuals or populations of a species. Some populations grow faster than others. Why? The chapter tries to find an answer to it.

Population increase has been observed in some countries and for others, a decrease has been detected. It has been predicted that the human population will increase to 8.5 billion in 2030 from 7. 8 billion in 2020. The exploitation of natural resources would increase accordingly. World Economic Forum reports that research conducted at the Swiss Re Institute has pointed out that an 18 percent reduction in GDP is achievable by 2050 if the Global temperature rise is restricted to 3.20 C. About 16 to 29% reduction in CO2 emissions would lead to a less dangerous climate change provided population growth is slowed down. If factors contributing to Global warming are managed in such a way that the Global temperature rises by 1.50 C, Sustainable Development Goals are achievable. Net–zero emissions targeted to be achieved by 2050 are not feasible as international agreements are not honored.

Complexity exists in systems with simple architecture. The unit of architecture, in this context, is a predator–prey community. In case another predator invades the patch in which this community inhabits, temporal dynamics would go chaotic. Chaotic dynamics is characterized by short–term predictability. This leads to Predator-induced phenotypic plasticity. It has been found in Daphnia‘s Neuro - physiological mechanisms of Ad hoc environmental phenotypic adaptation. Induced defenses in Daphnia; a prey for fish, phantom midge larvae, tadpoles, and several aquatic insects, engage in predation-specific chemical cues that signal increased predation risk. Identification of friends and foes is facilitated by Chemo-receptors in Daphnia. Olfactory receptor (OR) neurons belong to the G – protein-coupled – receptor super family. These neurons get activated when air-borne molecules bind to ORs expressed on their cilia. Transport of goods and services involves the movement of vehicles that release NO2 into the environment.

Molecular switches on plant leaves help sense their environment. These switches are 10-15 m long molecules made of femto particles. Animals and ‘social animals’ (individual humans living in different societies) interact with each other through members of G – protein-coupled receptor superfamily. Animals consume plants that provide food, fodder, fuel, and fiber for the growing human population. Social Capital, a network of relationships among people in an efficient society, creates Human capital; good health, and knowledge of things, which are useful for the execution of duties of an employee in a company. The chapter provides a crisp description of all that goes into different aspects of human ecology. This discipline puts humans on the center stage. An integration of this discipline with neurosciences would broaden the scope of both disciplines.

 The central theme of industrial ecology is the idea that the waste material from one industry can serve as raw material for the other. It is industrial symbiosis. This eases tension created by the pressure of ever-accumulating industrial waste. Another aspect of an industry is the input of energy. It must be clean; emissions to the environment are minimal, and green, i.e., we must utilize the least amount of resources. The search for clean energy sources has converged to Hydrogen Energy. The production efficiency of the electrolysis process is enhanced by the application of an external magnetic field. Solar to hydrogen conversion efficiency attains the levels of economic feasibility with the use of semiconductor sheets made of Rh – co-doped SrTiO3 powders embedded into a gold layer. Solar to hydrogen conversion efficiency (1.1% and 30% quantum yield at 419 nm) was achieved by splitting pure water (pH 6.88). Effects of electric power, external magnetic field, and temperature on conversion efficiency have been investigated and found to be appreciable.

Bio–diesel is another potential source of energy. The energy of sunlight is converted into chemical energy through a biochemical process. A positive aspect of algal cultivation is that it can be grown either in freshwater or brackish water. In this way, it does not compete for fresh water. Microalgae respond by producing more carbohydrates or lipids in conditions of environmental stress; e.g., when a particular nutrient is lacking. Biodiesel derived from algal lipids is non-toxic and biodegradable. Microalgae produce oils 15 – 300 times more than traditional crops per unit cultivated area. The ability of an endolithic cyanobacterial strain, Leptolyngbya sp. ISTCY101 to produce biomass from which biodiesel can be produced, has been assessed in experiments conducted exploiting principles of carbon assimilation in the natural ecological niche of the cyanobacterium. Measurements of relevant variables and parameters showed that this strain is capable of returning a reasonably high yield of biomass productivity.

Integration of industrial ecology and ecological economics would expand the scope of the circular economy. New information generated in the process of integration would be used to develop new tools for decision-makers. Self-guidance, a special attribute, would be available to industry leaders if a course based on this chapter is introduced in the curriculum of engineering undergraduates. 

The central theme of human ecology is sustainable development. United Nations Organization (UNO) in 2015 identified 17 goals; known as sustainable development goals (SDGs), to be achieved by 2030. SDG1 (No poverty) and SDG2 (Zero hunger) are difficult to achieve. For the former, a workable measure of poverty is to be evolved. The poverty line defined by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) is linked with the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which varies significantly for countries rich and poor. There is no relationship between poverty in the USA and India. It is relative poverty. A universal absolute poverty, which is not linked with Gross Domestic Product, needs to be considered. The prospect of whether the goal of zero hunger would be achieved, depends on the state of sustainable agriculture in a country at any given time. SDG2 may be achieved by 2030 with cooperation among rich and poor countries. If developing countries are provided soft credit by developed countries from time to time, a few targets could be achieved.

Agricultural productivity depends on capital. The interaction of disease and human capital leads to dynamics in the state space of the system represented by multiple equilibria (two stable equilibria and an intervening unstable equilibrium). If compared with the famous Lorenz attractor, which presents trajectories of two convective cells; one lying over the other, in the state space of the system (the bottom convective cell is heated up from below, with two unstable foci and an intervening saddle point), it is clear that the interaction of disease and human capital would generate oscillations in system’s state space. This explains why agricultural productivity varies; and oscillates between two states of low and high productivity. The incidence of unpredictable epidemics in this system would lead to chaos; which allows only short-term predictability. Therefore, SDG 3 (Good Health and Well–Being) appears to be wishful thinking. This knowledge adds value to SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production). Production refers to both agricultural and industrial.

Occupational Choice (SDG 3, SDG 8) is a critical factor. It depends on the beliefs and practices of the people of a nation. Banerjee & Newman (1993) developed a model of economic development. Economic development is considered as a process of institutional transformation. Capital market imperfections drive the dynamics of the system considered. Depending on the initial distribution of wealth, the economy generates two scenarios:1) either widespread cottage industry or factory production, 2) prosperity or stagnation. An individual’s decision of occupation depends on whether he/she is wealthy or poor. The poor go for employment contracts (factory production) and the wealthy go for entrepreneurship (widespread cottage industry). A society needs both kinds of people. An economy that is poised between two scenarios is desirable.

SDGs 13, 14, 15, and 17 are linked with each other in the sense that rain depends on tree cover present on the land surface. Water bodies receive water through precipitation which depends on the interaction between the sun and ocean; the reservoir of resources. Forest cover and land use patterns also affect climate. If rich countries help poor countries under the aegis of UNO through its different developmental programs, a few of the SDGs can be partially achieved. If developed nations continue to exploit situations in poor (developing) countries, then, there is no hope.