Book Volume 3
Preface
Page: i-ii (2)
Author: Merichel Plaza and María Luisa Marina
DOI: 10.2174/9789815049459123030001
Green Analytical Chemistry
Page: 1-23 (23)
Author: Miguel de la Guardia*, Sergio Armenta, Francesc A. Esteve-Turrillas and Salvador Garrigues
DOI: 10.2174/9789815049459123030003
PDF Price: $30
Abstract
Food analysis demands are mandatory from quality, safety, and
authentication point of view, and there is an increase in analytical activity in both the
control laboratory and research and development. This chapter presents the current
state-of-the-art of Green Analytical Chemistry and its main strategies for improving the
sustainability of analytical methods, reducing their environmental impact, and offering
solutions to the needs that arise from food analysis. Direct analysis is presented as the
ideal method that avoids the use of solvents or reagents and the generation of waste.
Miniaturization, automation, and the use of sustainable solvents, in addition to reducing
energy consumption, are the basic strategies that allow us to achieve the objectives of
Green Analytical Chemistry. The reduction of single-use plastic laboratory material
and their waste has also been considered an objective for analytical method greenness.
Green Extraction Techniques
Page: 24-67 (44)
Author: Malak Tabib, Njara Rakotomanomana, Adnane Remmal and Farid Chemat*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815049459123030004
PDF Price: $30
Abstract
Green extraction of natural products was and will always remain an
important research subject in various fields. It is based on developing techniques that
meet the six principles of eco-extraction. This concept responds to the challenges of the
21st century, aiming to protect the environment, the operator, and the consumer by
reducing hazardous solvent consumption and by favoring the use of more
environmentally friendly methods. In this chapter, we review the principles of eco-extraction in detail, followed by an overview of four methods widely used in
extraction, namely ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), microwave-assisted
extraction (MAE), subcritical water extraction (SWE), and supercritical fluid extraction
(SFE).
Environmentally Friendly Solvents
Page: 68-131 (64)
Author: Lidia Montero, Priscilla Rocío Bautista and Bienvenida Gilbert López*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815049459123030005
PDF Price: $30
Abstract
The present chapter aims to provide a brief overview of the environmentally
friendly solvents most commonly used in food analysis, including water, carbon
dioxide, ethanol, ionic liquids, (natural) deep eutectic solvents (NA)DES, surfactants,
and switchable solvents. A general outlook of their properties, production sources, and
classification is provided. The advantages and limitations of the use of these solvents in
food analysis are evaluated from the point of view of Green Analytical Chemistry.
Some recent applications have been selected to illustrate the potential of
environmentally friendly solvents in combination with assisted extraction techniques
and miniaturized techniques for the development of green extraction methods in food
analysis.
Recent Applications of Deep Eutectic Solvents
Page: 132-196 (65)
Author: Ruth Rodríguez-Ramos, Álvaro Santana-Mayor, Bárbara Socas-Rodríguez, Antonio V. Herrera-Herrera and Miguel Ángel Rodríguez Delgado*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815049459123030006
PDF Price: $30
Abstract
Among the different strategies applied in recent years for the development
of green extraction techniques in food analysis, the design and use of deep eutectic
solvents (DESs) have aroused the utmost attention due to the advantages provided by
these materials in terms of sustainability and versatility. Different types of DESs have
been applied in this field including hydrophilic and hydrophobic mixtures, natural
DESs, or polymeric-DESs. In this sense, the great availability of components and the
wide range of possible combinations constitute potential tools to increase the selectivity
and enhance the extraction capacity of the procedures, which is an important concern
when complex food samples are tackled. This broad spectrum of possibilities has
allowed the extraction of diverse compounds including not only contaminants such as
pesticides, plastic migrants, heavy metals, or pharmaceuticals, among others, but also
the extraction of biomolecules from food and food by-products. However, despite the
advantages of these materials, there are important drawbacks like their high viscosity
and low volatility that limit their application. In this context, an important effort has
been carried out by the study of different combinations and the development of
numerous approaches. In this chapter, the most relevant applications of DESs in the last
five years in food analysis have been compiled and discussed in order to provide a
global view of the advantages and limitations of the application of these green
extraction solvents in the field. Additionally, the current trends and future perspectives
in the use of DESs in food analysis are also pointed out.
Ionic Liquids
Page: 197-243 (47)
Author: Alfonso Jiménez, Carlos Javier Pelegrín and María Carmen Garrigós*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815049459123030007
PDF Price: $30
Abstract
The significant potential of ionic liquids (ILs) in the extraction and
separation of valuable products from food samples is deeply discussed in this chapter,
where the main studies on the application of ionic liquids to food analysis are
presented. The novel extraction strategies reviewed in this chapter have the potential to
significantly enhance the extraction yield, in particular when the combination of ionic
liquids with accelerated and green extraction techniques, such as microwave-assisted
extraction (MAE), ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) or subcritical water extraction
(SBWE) are used. ILs are considered environmentally-friendly solvents and they offer
some advantageous properties which are particularly relevant in extraction systems in
food matrices, such as their low toxicity and volatility and different polarity,
hydrophobicity and selectivity. A particular section is devoted to microextraction
techniques with ionic liquids, which have shown great performance in the extraction of
valuable compounds for a variety of food samples. This chapter summarizes and gives
an overview of the latest developments and applications of ILs in the extraction of
bioactive compounds from food.
Supramolecular Solvents
Page: 244-279 (36)
Author: Noelia Caballero-Casero* and Soledad Rubio
DOI: 10.2174/9789815049459123030008
PDF Price: $30
Abstract
Supramolecular solvents (SUPRASs) are becoming more and more
demanded for sample preparation in food analysis. Their inherent properties (e.g.
different polarity microenvironments, multiple binding sites, discontinuous nature, easy
tailoring of their properties, etc.) make them highly efficient for the extraction of
single- and multi-class contaminants in food matrices. Likewise, they offer numerous
opportunities for the development of innovative sample treatment platforms not
attainable by conventional solvents. In this chapter, the fundamentals underlying the
production of SUPRASs and their more relevant properties regarding their application
to the extraction of food contaminants are discussed. An overview of representative
developments in this field is given based on the different types of SUPRASs applied so
far in food analysis. Major achievements attained, mainly related to the extraction of
single- and multi-components prior to their quantification by liquid chromatography
coupled to different detection systems, are critically presented. The main challenges to
be faced in order to get SUPRAS-based methodologies that meet European
requirements for screening/quantification of contaminants in food and promote their
use in food control labs are discussed.
Supercritical Fluid Extraction
Page: 280-323 (44)
Author: Ádina L. Santana*, Larry O. Chañi-Paucar, Priscilla C. Veggi, Juliane Viganó and M. Angela A. Meireles
DOI: 10.2174/9789815049459123030009
PDF Price: $30
Abstract
In this chapter, we highlight the basic concepts behind the use of SFE to
select molecules present in food matrices, e.g., carotenoids, essential oils, waxes, and
phenolic compounds. Also, we highlight the SFE equipment setup, the methods for
process intensification, and mass transfer mechanisms involved in the process, besides
the advantages and drawbacks. Supercritical fluids have been suggested as a powerful
tool to improve the performance of analytical methods in terms of reduced steps for
sample preparation and waste generation, besides enhanced precision and recovery of
analytes detected. The offline association of SFE with analytical detection has been
elucidated for decades. Currently, many efforts have been made to reach the
miniaturization of equipment as well as the online hyphenation between extraction and
analytical detection with supercritical fluids as a novel method for sample preparation
to detect food analytes in real time with accuracy and robustness.
Gas-Expanded Liquids Extraction
Page: 324-356 (33)
Author: Zully J. Suárez Montenegro, Norelhouda Abderrezag, Elena Ibáñez* and Jose A. Mendiola
DOI: 10.2174/9789815049459123030010
PDF Price: $30
Abstract
Gas Expanded Liquids (GXL) are mixtures of liquid solvents (organic,
water) and gases or supercritical fluids with diverse physicochemical properties
halfway between pure liquids and supercritical fluids. The possibility of changing their
properties by introducing small changes in pressure, temperature, and/or solvent/gas
ratio, makes these solvents a very interesting and appropriate option for developing
green extraction protocols for food analysis. In general, GXLs have similar densities as
the solvent used in their composition, while having improved mass transfer through
reduced viscosity, increased solute diffusivity, and decreased interfacial tension. Some
other advantages are related to the wide range of polarities that can be obtained,
depending on the liquid selected. Moreover, the substitution of a liquid fraction for a
gas reduces the final use of organic solvent, thus improving the green character of
GXLs. In the present chapter, the physicochemical properties of GXL are addressed
along together with the description of applications in the food science and technology
area.
Pressurized Liquid Extraction (PLE)
Page: 357-395 (39)
Author: Natalie Álvarez Alarcon, Juan S. Ortiz-Ramírez, Jenny P. Ortega-Barbosa, Diego Ballesteros-Vivas, Luis I. Rodríguez-Varela and Fabián Parada Alfonso*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815049459123030011
PDF Price: $30
Abstract
Pressurized liquid extraction (PLE) is regarded as an emergent extraction
technique; it is an appropriate tool to obtain green extracts from foods or related
samples. Studies on the content of contaminants in foods or food raw materials can be
carried out by PLE. In the same way, studies on the obtention of bioactive extracts
from classic and emerging foods and their by-products can be carried out by PLE too.
Besides sequential process combinations of PLE with other innovative extraction
techniques could generate benefits for the food industry. The objective of this chapter
is to clearly define the role that this technique plays in food analysis, as well as the
updated spectrum of some of its applications during the last lustrum.
Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE)
Page: 396-430 (35)
Author: Milena Álvarez Viñas, Vanesa Sanz, Paula Rodríguez-Seoane, Lucía López Hortas, Noelia Flórez Fernández, María Dolores Torres and Herminia Domínguez*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815049459123030012
PDF Price: $30
Abstract
Microwave assistance is an optimum strategy to shorten time, solvent, and
energy consumption during the extraction of target solutes from different sources. This
intensification strategy has been successfully applied to laboratory methods to enhance
the extraction performance of a number of bioactive compounds of interest for food,
cosmetic and pharmaceutical applications. This chapter presents an overview of the
fundamentals, equipment configurations, combinations with other techniques, and
some representative applications for the extraction of compounds from food products
and byproducts.
Application of Enzyme-Assisted Extraction for Food Analysis and Release of Natural Products
Page: 431-496 (66)
Author: María del Prado García Aparicio* and María Luisa Marina
DOI: 10.2174/9789815049459123030013
Abstract
The transition to a circular bioeconomic model that incorporates sustainable
extraction processes such as enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE) is motivated by climate
change, population growth, and changing diets to address food security and safety, and
preserve natural resources (land, and water) and biodiversity. EAE can be applied to
extract nutrients and bioactive molecules for food analysis and profiling, and for
industrial exploitation of bioactive compounds from novel feedstocks. Commercial
extraction processes require high recovery of the targeted compounds and must
guarantee the preservation of the biological activity of the products, which is difficult
to achieve using conventional methods. EAE is a possible alternative to preserve the
quality of final products while reducing the industrial footprint in the food sector at a
larger scale. This chapter describes the parameters that impact the extraction yield
obtained in the EAE process and provides recent examples of its successful application
for the extraction of polymers and bioactive compounds of very diverse matrices (plant,
animal, mushrooms, yeast, food waste, and insects), with emphasis on process
conditions. This chapter also identifies the challenges and opportunities of EAE and the
emerging areas of research to facilitate the economic feasibility of the enzymatic
extraction of bioactive molecules. Costs related to enzyme production and its use are
one of the main impediments to the industrial application of the EAE process. Recent
research progress suggests that reduction of EAE costs can be achieved by a holistic
approach considering all steps: enzyme production (by using cheap enzyme production
media, in-house enzyme production), selection of feedstock (i.e., food byproducts),
enzyme recycling (enzyme immobilization, nano-biocatalysts), the search of novel
enzymes (marine degrading polysaccharides), more robust enzymes (i.e.,
extremozymes) and/or enzyme improvement (bioengineering), and EAE process
optimization (minimum optimal enzyme dosage). EAE technology for food analysis
and production of bioactive molecules keeps building momentum as it is sustainable,
environmentally friendly, and innovative
Pulsed Electric Field
Page: 497-532 (36)
Author: Ester Hernández-Corroto, Nadia Boussetta, María Luisa Marina, María Concepción García and Eugène Vorobiev*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815049459123030014
PDF Price: $30
Abstract
This chapter reviews the fundamentals of the Pulsed Electric Field (PEF)
and its applications to the extraction of high-added value substances from food
matrices. The electroporation process on the cell membrane is explained and the most
recent works dealing with the use of PEF for extracting essential molecules for the
human body such as lipids, phenolic compounds, carotenoids, proteins, carbohydrates,
and vitamins, from food and plant matrices, and food waste, are described in detail.
The combination of PEF with other extraction techniques is a common practice and
improves the extractability of specific compounds to increase the recovery yields.
High-Voltage Electrical Discharges
Page: 533-564 (32)
Author: Ester Hernández-Corroto, María Luisa Marina and María Concepción García*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815049459123030015
PDF Price: $30
Abstract
High-Voltage Electrical Discharges (HVED) are considered an emergent
extraction technique based on the application of high-pulsed voltages. The aim of this
chapter was to review its fundamentals for applications at laboratory and industrial
scales. The configuration of devices and employed electrodes is described. Moreover,
main steps required for using HVED and most important factors affecting this
technique are also highlighted. Extraction of high added-value compounds from food
waste and plant matrices using batch HVED has been the most usual application in last
five years. In many cases, the low selectivity of the technique has made the use of a
solid-liquid extraction step after HVED application necessary.
High Hydrostatic Pressure: A Green Extraction Technique for Food and Pharmaceutical Industries
Page: 565-598 (34)
Author: Ergin Murat Altuner*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815049459123030016
PDF Price: $30
Abstract
High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) is a green extraction method, which finds
several uses in different branches of science. HHP is a novel non-thermal technique
mostly used in food processing. The “high pressure” in HHP states an ultra-high cold
isostatic hydraulic pressure, which processes basically at low or mild process
temperatures (<45 °C) ranging between 100 and 800 MPa. In some applications, this
pressure can extend up to 1000 MPa. In food processing, there are several purposes for
using HHP, such as sterilizing, coagulating, and gelatinizing food samples.
Alternatively, HHP has many remarkable uses in some branches of science besides
food processing. This chapter aims to present the capabilities of HHP as a green
extraction technique in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
Subject Index
Page: 599-605 (7)
Author: Merichel Plaza and María Luisa Marina
DOI: 10.2174/9789815049459123030017
Introduction
This book aims to inform readers about the latest trends in environment-friendly extraction techniques in food analysis. Fourteen edited chapters cover relevant topics. These topics include a primer green food analysis and extraction, environment-friendly solvents, (such as deep eutectic solvents, ionic liquids, and supramolecular solvents), and different extraction techniques. Key Features - Includes topics for basic and advanced readers - Covers a wide range of green solvents for food analysis - Emphasizes modern extraction techniques (including supercritical fluid extraction, the gas expanded liquid extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, pulse electric field extraction) - Provides notes on selection of solvents - Includes references for every chapter The blend of fundamental and applied information makes this an ideal reference for food chemistry students and research scholars. It also serves as a guide for professional experts working in food analysis and sustainability roles.