An Introductory Review on the Wax Moth; a Devastating Pest of the Honey Bees
Page: 1-15 (15)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815123821123010003
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Galleria mellonella L. (Greater Wax Moth) and Achroia grisella E (Lesser
Wax Moth) are honey bees' most disastrous and economically important pests.
Furthermore, in comparison to adults, larvae are a primary destructive stage for honey
bee colonies. Voraciously feeding larvae prefer to take bee combs, stored pollen
reserves, honey, larval and pupal exuviate, slum gum of the hive, wax capping, natural
bee wax, and queen-rearing material containing wax in the storage. Larvae bore the
hive, constructing silken tunnels in the colony combs to feed on stored products in the
hive. The infested combs become covered with a mass of webbing and faecal matter
that results in the condition of gallariasis. Weaker, queen-less, poorly managed, less
ventilated colonies and abandoned bee hives become easy targets of wax moth
infestation.
Further, the strong colonies are also prone to infestation, being a potential host for the
heavy growth of this destructive breeder pest. However, after infestation, the bee
population of strong colonies declines quickly, and eventually, the hive is destroyed.
The present chapter highlights the introduction of the concerned disastrous pest,
morphology, development, mating, reproduction, and control. The wax moth is
considered a problem by apiarists. In contrast, while considering other characteristic
features of this insect, the potential ability to degrade plastic of variant types, it
provides an excellent solution to increasing plastic pollution. Considering both
characteristics of this insect, the present book is titled 'Wax Moth a Problem or
Solution?
Morphometric Characteristics of the Wax Moth
Page: 16-30 (15)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815123821123010004
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
The two predominant wax moth species, the greater and the lesser wax
moths, exhibit remarkably different morphometric characteristics in the egg, larva,
pupa, and adult stages. The eggs of the greater wax moth (GWM) are pink, cream or
white, with an ellipsoid, ovoid or obovoid shape, whereas the eggs of the lesser wax
moth (LWM) are creamy-white with a spherical shape. Furthermore, in the GWM, the
egg size range is 0.44 ± 0.04 × 0.36 ± 0.02 mm, while in the LWM, the egg size
corresponds to 0.41 ± 0.02 × 0.31 ± 0.01 mm. The first instar larval length in the GWM
is 1-3 mm, whereas the last instar body length corresponds to 12-20 mm. In the case of
LWM, the first instar of body measurement is 1-20 mm, while in the last instar, it
grows upto18.8 ± 0.4 mm. The pupal size in the GWM; is 12-20 mm in length and 5-7
mm in width, while the pupa in the LWM is 11.3 ± 0.4 mm in length and 2.80 ± 1.89
mm in width.
Similarly, in the LWM, the adult body is 10 mm long in the male and 13 mm long in
the female moths. The GWM adults possess a 15 mm body length. The dimensions
mentioned above for the GWM and the LWM elucidate that the various developmental
stages are distinguishable. The present chapter is attributed to the external body
dimension and characteristic features of two predominant types of wax moths, which
impose significant challenges to apiculture.
Sequential Developmental Events in the Wax Moth Life Cycle
Page: 31-47 (17)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815123821123010005
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
The wax moth (WM) is a holometabolous insect with developmental stages
of egg, larva, pupa, and adult in its life cycle. The development coherence of the wax
moth is influenced by different abiotic and biotic environmental cues, including the
larval diet, temperature, cannibalism, genomic content, insect hormones, and
pheromones. The fecundity and fertility are comparatively high in WM to ensure
species' survival within the honey bee hive. The wax moth adults preferentially infest
the weaker colonies at night, where they live in the concealed space, usually on the top
bar of the wooden chamber. Mating usually takes place on nearby trees; after that, the
gravid female enters the hive to oviposit in the crevices and cracks to hide from the
host honey bees. Afterward, the eggs hatch into the larva that feeds on the bee wax,
honey, pollen, and exuviate of the honey bees. Severe localised concealing sites of WM
in the hive facilitate specific pest protection in the host honey bee colony, eventually
destroying the entire hive and forcing the honey bees to abscond the hive. The present
chapter elucidates the development of a specific devastating pest of honey bee colonies,
including influential abiotic and biotic factors. Furthermore, the differentiation of the
life cycles of the greater wax moth (GWM) and the lesser wax moth (LWM) is also
speculated in detail as per available literature.
The Wax Moth Pheromone, Moth Influence, and Associated Glands
Page: 48-55 (8)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815123821123010006
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
The wax moth male secretes various pheromones to attract the female for
mating. The volatiles induce species-specific influence, which modulates the behaviour
of other members of the same species. The primary pheromones include nonanal and
undecanal, hexanal, heptanal, octanal, decanal, undecanol, and 6, 10, 14 -
trimethylpentadecanon-2. The specific chemicals are secreted by a pair of glands on the
forewings of the male moth in the greater and lesser wax moth. These volatiles are
essential for the adult stage and plays a critical role in larval and pupal aggregation.
The specific chapter elaborates on the chemical composition of the pheromones, their
influence on the conspecific individuals, and their role in modulating the mating
behaviour, in the case of the greater wax moth (GWM) and the lesser wax moth
(LWM).
Mating and Reproduction in the Wax Moth: A Sequence of Events
Page: 56-66 (11)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815123821123010007
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
The wax moth adults prefer to mate on trees near the bee farm. For mating,
they exhibit a specific behavioural pattern that includes the male's production of
ultrasonic sound waves, wing vibration by the female moth, and pheromonal release by
the male moth. After mating, the gravid female returns to the hive and oviposits there.
The pairing in this moth occurs in a sex–role reversal manner rather than the typical
moth signalling system. The male moth produces ultrasonic sound and pheromonal
signals in this insect, whereas females have chemical signals in other moths. In other
words, pairing in the wax moth occurs by releasing pheromones and wing fanning,
attracting female moths with a response to wing fanning.
Furthermore, the presence of the female moth induces the male to produce ultrasonic
sounds that attract the female and make her receptive to courtship. The current chapter
elucidates signalling in the male wax moth, the response of the female exclusively to
the male's mating calls and volatiles released by the male to guide her for the mating.
Comparatively, more detailed information is available on the greater wax moth (GWM)
than, the lesser wax moth (LWM) concerning insect biology, laboratory rearing,
morphology, anatomy, physiology, genomics, proteomics, mating, reproduction,
immunity, and plastic degradation capacity.
The Possible Wax Moth Infestation Regulation
Page: 67-75 (9)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815123821123010008
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
The wax moth infestation can be controlled with various physical, chemical,
and biological methods. As the wax moth is a typical lepidopteran insect that is
poikilothermic, exposing multiple developmental stages and imagoes to extremely low
and higher temperatures can provide a solution for the specific pest infestation.
Additionally, divergent pesticides targeting the nervous system, respiratory system,
developmental regulation, and general insect physiology further solve the problem. The
biological control measures include the application of various micro-organisms or their
secreted products that can help regulate the insect population. The present chapter
highlights primary methods for regulating the wax moth infestation with divergent
strategies to reduce economic loss to apiculture.
Plastic Biodegradation by the Wax Moth: A Viable Alternative
Page: 76-89 (14)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815123821123010009
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Environmental pollution due to plastic is becoming a concentration, drawing
concern throughout the world. The wax moth larvae possess the potential for
biodegradation of different types of plastic with or without the involvement of the
intestinal microbiome in the larval gut. Similarly, mealworms and Tenebrio molitor
have been reported to cause the degradation of polyethene and polystyrene mixtures.
According to scientific literature, superworms such as Zophobas atratus can cause
polystyrene degradation. The plastic is biodegradable with many bacterial genera,
including Pseudomonas, Ralstonia, Stenotrophomonas, Rhodococcus, Staphylococcus,
Streptomyces, Bacillus, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Penicillium, and others. A few
other invertebrates with complex gut microbiomes also possess this property of plastic
biodegradation.
Introduction
The Wax Moth: A Problem or a Solution? Covers the biology, development, morphometric characters, pheromones, mating and reproduction of the greater wax moth, which is a major pest in bee colonies. It also gives tips to beekeeping enthusiasts and professionals on how to manage wax moth infestations. Finally, it elucidates the involvement of wax moths in plastic degradation. Key Features · A complete overview of the basic biology of the greater wax moth · A quick guide on wax moth pest control · Tips for beekeepers to enhance colony growth for sustainable apiculture · Information for researchers on the wax moth’s involvement in plastic degradation · Simple text for readers of all levels · References for additional reading The Wax Moth: A Problem or a Solution? Is a comprehensive yet quick reference that is ideal for entomology and agriculture students, researchers, academicians and beekeepers (both professional and hobbyist).