Generic placeholder image

Current Psychopharmacology

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 2211-5560
ISSN (Online): 2211-5579

Review Article

Hallucinogen Use in College Students: Current Trends and Consequences of Use

Author(s): Lena S. Jia* and Jessica A. Gold

Volume 9, Issue 2, 2020

Page: [115 - 127] Pages: 13

DOI: 10.2174/2211556009666200311140404

Price: $65

Abstract

Hallucinogens are a drug class that is growing in popularity with college students. Recent experimental trends, such as microdosing, have helped promote the use of hallucinogens on campus, and students may be tempted to use these substances due to their beliefs about the drugs’ positive effects on mood. Although hallucinogens are not currently an established form of medical therapy, studies have shown that they have significant benefits as adjunctive treatments for psychological disorders. However, the recreational use of these drugs in college students often occurs in uncontrolled doses or with drug mixing, which is often dangerous. Furthermore, students with mental health disorders may have their symptoms masked by hallucinogenic drug use, which could delay treatment and have serious consequences. Long-term use of these drugs may also result in tolerance or hallucinogen persisting perception disorder. This article attempts to review current information regarding hallucinogen use and how it applies to the college population.

Keywords: College students, drug use, hallucinogens, substance abuse, university, young adults.

Graphical Abstract
[1]
Luyckx K, Lens W, Smits I, Goossens L. Time perspective and identity formation: short-term longitudinal dynamics in college students. Int J Behav Dev 2010; 34(3): 238-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0165025409350957]
[2]
u.s. department of health and human services, substance abuse and mental health services administration, center for behavioral health statistics and quality. 2010. available from: https://datafiles.samhsa.gov/
[4]
Arria AM, Caldeira KM, O’Grady KE, et al. Drug exposure opportunities and use patterns among college students: results of a longitudinal prospective cohort study. Subst Abus 2008; 29(4): 19-38.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08897070802418451] [PMID: 19042196]
[5]
Johnston LD, O’Malley PM, Bachman JG, Schulenberg JE, Miech RA. monitoring the future national survey results on drug use, 1975-2018: volume ii, college students and adults ages 19-60. 2019. 124 current psychopharmacology, 2020, vol. 9, no. 2 jia and gold http://monitoringthefuture.org/pubs.html#monographs
[6]
Polito V, Stevenson RJ. A systematic study of microdosing psychedelics. PLoS One 2019; 14(2): e0211023.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211023] [PMID: 30726251]
[7]
Levy KB, O’Grady KE, Wish ED, Arria AM. An indepth qualitative examination of the ecstasy experience: results of a focus group with ecstasy-using college students. Subst Use Misuse 2005; 40(9-10): 1427-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1081/JA-200066810] [PMID: 16048826]
[8]
Sherlock K, Wolff K, Hay AW, Conner M. Analysis of illicit ecstasy tablets: implications for clinical management in the accident and emergency department. J Accid Emerg Med 1999; 16(3): 194-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/emj.16.3.194] [PMID: 10353046]
[9]
Gogtay N, Vyas NS, Testa R, Wood SJ, Pantelis C. Age of onset of schizophrenia: perspectives from structural neuroimaging studies. Schizophr Bull 2011; 37(3): 504-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbr030] [PMID: 21505117]
[10]
Nichols DE. Hallucinogens. Pharmacol Ther 2004; 101(2): 131-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2003.11.002] [PMID: 14761703]
[11]
Gouzoulis-Mayfrank E, Habermeyer E, Hermle L, Steinmeyer A, Kunert H, Sass H. Hallucinogenic drug induced states resemble acute endogenous psychoses: results of an empirical study. Eur Psychiatry 1998; 13(8): 399-406.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0924-9338(99)80686-5] [PMID: 19698655]
[12]
Hollister LE. Hallucinogens: neurochemical, Behavioral, and Clinical Perspectives. New York: Raven Press 1984; pp. 19-33.
[13]
Nichols DE. Differences between the mechanism of action of MDMA, MBDB, and the classic hallucinogens. Identification of a new therapeutic class: entactogens. J Psychoactive Drugs 1986; 18(4): 305-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02791072.1986.10472362] [PMID: 2880944]
[14]
Vollenweider FX, Kometer M. The neurobiology of psychedelic drugs: implications for the treatment of mood disorders. Nat Rev Neurosci 2010; 11(9): 642-51.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2884] [PMID: 20717121]
[15]
González-Maeso J, Weisstaub NV, Zhou M, et al. Hallucinogens recruit specific cortical 5-HT(2A) receptor-mediated signaling pathways to affect behavior. Neuron 2007; 53(3): 439-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2007.01.008] [PMID: 17270739]
[16]
Xu K, Krystal JH, Ning Y, et al. Preliminary analysis of positive and negative syndrome scale in ketamineassociated psychosis in comparison with schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res 2015; 61: 64-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.12.012] [PMID: 25560772]
[17]
Tewksbury R, Mustaine EE. College students’ lifestyles and self-protective behaviors: further considerations of the guardianship concept in routine activity theory. Crim Justice Behav 2003; 30(3): 302-27.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093854803030003003]
[18]
Martin CS, Clifford PR, Clapper RL. Patterns and predictors of simultaneous and concurrent use of alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, and hallucinogens in firstyear college students. J Subst Abuse 1992; 4(3): 319-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0899-3289(92)90039-Z] [PMID: 1458048]
[19]
Simons JS, Gaher RM, Correia CJ, Bush JA. Club drug use among college students. Addict Behav 2005; 30(8): 1619-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.02.003] [PMID: 16122624]
[20]
Hallock RM, Dean A, Knecht ZA, Spencer J, Taverna EC. A survey of hallucinogenic mushroom use, factors related to usage, and perceptions of use among college students. Drug Alcohol Depend 2013; 130(1-3): 245-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.11.010] [PMID: 23265089]
[21]
McCabe SE, Morales M, Cranford JA, Delva J, McPherson MD, Boyd CJ. Race/ethnicity and gender differences in drug use and abuse among college students. J Ethn Subst Abuse 2007; 6(2): 75-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/J233v06n02_06] [PMID: 18192205]
[22]
Lange JE, Reed MB, Croff JMK, Clapp JD. College student use of Salvia divinorum. Drug Alcohol Depend 2008; 94(1-3): 263-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.10.018] [PMID: 18093751]
[23]
Low KG, Gendaszek AE. Illicit use of psychostimulants among college students: a preliminary study. V Psychol Health Med 2002; 7(3): 283-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13548500220139386]
[24]
Griffiths RR, Richards WA, McCann U, Jesse R. Psilocybin can occasion mystical-type experiences having substantial and sustained personal meaning and spiritual significance. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2006; 187(3): 268-83.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-006-0457-5] [PMID: 16826400]
[25]
Griffiths RR, Johnson MW, Richards WA, Richards BD, McCann U, Jesse R. Psilocybin occasioned mystical-type experiences: immediate and persisting dose-related effects. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2011; 218(4): 649-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-011-2358-5] [PMID: 21674151]
[26]
Liechti ME, Dolder PC, Schmid Y. Alterations of consciousness and mystical-type experiences after acute LSD in humans. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2017; 234(9-10): 1499-510.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-016-4453-0] [PMID: 27714429]
[27]
Griffiths RR, Johnson MW, Richards WA, et al. Psilocybin-occasioned mystical-type experience in combination with meditation and other spiritual practices produces enduring positive changes in psychological functioning and in trait measures of prosocial attitudes and behaviors. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford) 2018; 32(1): 49-69.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881117731279] [PMID: 29020861]
[28]
Smallwood J, Fishman DJ, Schooler JW. Counting the cost of an absent mind: mind wandering as an underrecognized influence on educational performance. Psychon Bull Rev 2007; 14(2): 230-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3758/BF03194057] [PMID: 17694906]
[29]
Fadiman J. microdose research: without approvals, control groups, double-blinds, staff or funding by dr james fadiman, 2017. Available at: https://psychedelicpress.co.uk/blogs/psychedelic-pressblog/microdose-research-james-fadiman
[30]
Killingsworth MA, Gilbert DT. A wandering mind is an unhappy mind. Science 2010; 330(6006): 932.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1192439] [PMID: 21071660]
[31]
Gaher RM, Simons JS. Evaluations and expectancies of alcohol and marijuana problems among college students. Psychol Addict Behav 2007; 21(4): 545-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.21.4.545] [PMID: 18072837]
[32]
Leonard A. How LSD microdosing became the hot new business trip 2015. Available at: https://www. rollingstone.com/culture/culture-news/how-lsd-micro dosing-became-the-hot-new-business-trip-64961/
[33]
Gregoire C. everything you wanted to know about microdosing (but were afraid to ask), 2016. Available at: https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/psychedelic-microdosing
[34]
Prochazkova L, Lippelt DP, Colzato LS, Kuchar M, Sjoerds Z, Hommel B. Exploring the effect of microdosing psychedelics on creativity in an open-label natural setting. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2018; 235(12): 3401-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-018-5049-7] [PMID: 30357434]
[35]
Anderson T, Petranker R, Rosenbaum D, et al. Microdosing psychedelics: personality, mental health, and creativity differences in microdosers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236(2): 731-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00213-018-5106-2] [PMID: 30604183]
[36]
Budney AJ. Advancing the research agenda for DSMV Diagnostic issues in substance use disorders: refining the research agenda for DSM-V. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association 2007; pp. 221-35.
[37]
Halpern JH. Hallucinogens: an update. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2003; 5(5): 347-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11920-003-0067-4] [PMID: 13678554]
[38]
Matefy RE, Hayes C, Hirsch J. Psychedelic drug flashbacks: subjective reports and biographical data. Addict Behav 1978; 3(3-4): 165-78.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0306-4603(78)90015-1] [PMID: 735901]
[39]
Matefy RE. Role-play theory of psychedelic drug flashbacks. J Consult Clin Psychol 1980; 48(4): 551-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.48.4.551] [PMID: 7400448]
[40]
Abraham HD. Visual phenomenology of the LSD flashback. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1983; 40(8): 884-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1983.01790070074009] [PMID: 6135405]
[41]
Abraham HD, Duffy FH. EEG coherence in post-LSD visual hallucinations. Psychiatry Res 2001; 107(3): 151-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0925-4927(01)00098-1] [PMID: 11566431]
[42]
Litjens RPW, Brunt TM, Alderliefste GJ, Westerink RHS. Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder and the serotonergic system: a comprehensive review including new MDMA-related clinical cases. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2014; 24(8): 1309-23.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2014.05.008] [PMID: 24933532]
[43]
Nutt DJ, King LA, Phillips LD. Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis. Lancet 2010; 376(9752): 1558-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61462-6] [PMID: 21036393]
[44]
van Amsterdam J, Nutt D, Phillips L, van den Brink W. European rating of drug harms. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford) 2015; 29(6): 655-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881115581980] [PMID: 25922421]
[45]
National Institute on drug abuse; national institutes of Health 2019. Available at: https://www.drugabuse. gov/drugsabuse/hallucinogens
[46]
Lerner AG, Skladman I, Kodesh A, Sigal M, Shufman E. LSD-induced Hallucinogen Persisting Perception Disorder treated with clonazepam: two case reports. Isr J Psychiatry Relat Sci 2001; 38(2): 133-6.
[PMID: 11475916]
[47]
Lerner AG, Oyefe I, Isaacs G, Sigal M. Naltrexone treatment of hallucinogen persisting perception disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154(3): 437.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.154.3.437a] [PMID: 9054801]
[48]
Lerner AG, Gelkopf M, Skladman I, Rudinski D, Nachshon H, Bleich A. Clonazepam treatment of lysergic acid diethylamide-induced hallucinogen persisting perception disorder with anxiety features. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2003; 18(2): 101-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00004850-200303000-00007] [PMID: 12598822]
[49]
Hermle L, Simon M, Ruchsow M, Geppert M. Hallucinogen-persisting perception disorder. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol 2012; 2(5): 199-205.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2045125312451270] [PMID: 23983976]
[50]
Barnes TR, Mutsatsa SH, Hutton SB, Watt HC, Joyce EM. Comorbid substance use and age at onset of schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 2006; 188(3): 237-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.104.007237] [PMID: 16507965]
[51]
Archie S, Rush BR, Akhtar-Danesh N, et al. Substance use and abuse in first-episode psychosis: prevalence before and after early intervention. Schizophr Bull 2007; 33(6): 1354-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbm011] [PMID: 17337748]
[52]
Johansen P-Ø, Krebs TS. Psychedelics not linked to mental health problems or suicidal behavior: a population study. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford) 2015; 29(3): 270-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881114568039] [PMID: 25744618]
[53]
Barnett JH, Werners U, Secher SM, et al. Substance use in a population-based clinic sample of people with first-episode psychosis. Br J Psychiatry 2007; 190: 515-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.106.024448] [PMID: 17541112]
[54]
Häfner H, Maurer K, Löffler W, Riecher-Rössler A. The influence of age and sex on the onset and early course of schizophrenia. Br J Psychiatry 1993; 162(1): 80-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1192/bjp.162.1.80] [PMID: 8425144]
[55]
Paulzen M, Gründer G. Toxic psychosis after intake of the hallucinogen salvinorin A. J Clin Psychiatry 2008; 69(9): 1501-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v69n0919c] [PMID: 19193352]
[56]
Reneman L, de Win MML, van den Brink W, Booij J, den Heeten GJ. Neuroimaging findings with MDMA/ecstasy: technical aspects, conceptual issues and future prospects. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford) 2006; 20(2): 164-75.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881106061515] [PMID: 16510475]
[57]
Kuypers KPC. Psychedelic bliss: memory and risk taking during MDMA intoxication. Maastricht: Universiteit Maastricht 2007.
[58]
Karlsen SN, Spigset O, Slørdal L. The dark side of ecstasy: neuropsychiatric symptoms after exposure to 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2008; 102(1): 15-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-7843.2007.00159.x] [PMID: 18047478]
[59]
Martins SS, Alexandre PK. The association of ecstasy use and academic achievement among adolescents in two U.S. national surveys. Addict Behav 2009; 34(1): 9-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.07.022] [PMID: 18778898]
[60]
Halkitis PN, Green KA. Sildenafil (Viagra) and club drug use in gay and bisexual men: the role of drug combinations and context. Am J Men Health 2007; 1(2): 139-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1557988307300450] [PMID: 19482790]
[61]
Hall AP, Henry JA. Acute toxic effects of ‘Ecstasy’ (MDMA) and related compounds: overview of pathophysiology and clinical management. Br J Anaesth 2006; 96(6): 678-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/bja/ael078] [PMID: 16595612]
[62]
Goldman B. Rave new world: Scientists pry apart party drug’s therapeutic, addictive qualities. 2019. Available at.
[http://dx.doi.org/med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2019/12/rave-new-world-scientists-pry-apart-partydrugs-therapeutic.html.]
[63]
Stone AL, O’Brien MS, De La Torre A, Anthony JC. Who is becoming hallucinogen dependent soon after hallucinogen use starts? Drug Alcohol Depend 2007; 87(2-3): 153-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.08.008] [PMID: 16987612]
[64]
Wu LT, Ringwalt CL, Weiss RD, Blazer DG. Hallucinogen-related disorders in a national sample of adolescents: the influence of ecstasy/MDMA use. Drug Alcohol Depend 2009; 104(1-2): 156-66.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2009.04.014] [PMID: 19500920]
[65]
Kendler KS, Karkowski LM, Neale MC, Prescott CA. Illicit psychoactive substance use, heavy use, abuse, and dependence in a US population-based sample of male twins. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2000; 57(3): 261-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.57.3.261] [PMID: 10711912]
[66]
Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C. Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse. Lancet 2007; 369(9566): 1047-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4] [PMID: 17382831]
[67]
van Amsterdam J, Opperhuizen A, Koeter M, van den Brink W. Ranking the harm of alcohol, tobacco and illicit drugs for the individual and the population. Eur Addict Res 2010; 16(4): 202-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000317249] [PMID: 20606445]
[68]
Taylor M, Mackay K, Murphy J, et al. Quantifying the RR of harm to self and others from substance misuse: results from a survey of clinical experts across Scotland. BMJ Open 2012; 2(4): e000774.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2011-000774]
[69]
Griffiths RR, Johnson MW, Carducci MA, et al. Psilocybin produces substantial and sustained decreases in depression and anxiety in patients with lifethreatening cancer: a randomized double-blind trial. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford) 2016; 30(12): 1181-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881116675513] [PMID: 27909165]
[70]
Gasser P, Kirchner K, Passie T. LSD-assisted psychotherapy for anxiety associated with a life-threatening disease: a qualitative study of acute and sustained subjective effects. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford) 2015; 29(1): 57-68.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881114555249] [PMID: 25389218]
[71]
Schmid Y, Enzler F, Gasser P, et al. Acute effects of lysergic acid diethylamide in healthy subjects. Biol Psychiatry 2015; 78(8): 544-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.11.015] [PMID: 25575620]
[72]
Moreno FA, Wiegand CB, Taitano EK, Delgado PL. Safety, tolerability, and efficacy of psilocybin in 9 patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2006; 67(11): 1735-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v67n1110] [PMID: 17196053]
[73]
Brandrup E, Vanggaard T. LSD treatment in a severe case of compulsive neurosis. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1977; 55(2): 127-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.1977.tb00149.x] [PMID: 842386]
[74]
Leonard HL, Rapoport JL. Relief of obsessivecompulsive symptoms by LSD and psilocin. Am J Psychiatry 1987; 144(9): 1239-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.144.9.1239b] [PMID: 3631327]
[75]
Moreno FA, Delgado PL. Hallucinogen-induced relief of obsessions and compulsions. Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154(7): 1037-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/ajp.154.7.1037b] [PMID: 9210762]
[76]
Oehen P, Traber R, Widmer V, Schnyder U. A randomized, controlled pilot study of MDMA-assisted psychotherapy for treatment of resistant, chronic Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). J Psychopharmacol 2013; 27(1): 40-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881112464827] [PMID: 23118021]
[77]
Frewen PA, Lanius RA. Toward a psychobiology of posttraumatic self-dysregulation: reexperiencing, hyperarousal, dissociation, and emotional numbing. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006; 1071: 110-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1196/annals.1364.010] [PMID: 16891566]
[78]
Johansen P, Krebs TS. How could MDMA (ecstasy) help anxiety disorders? A neurobiological rationale. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford) 2009; 23(4): 389-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881109102787] [PMID: 19273493]
[79]
Read JP, Ouimette P, White J, Colder C, Farrow S. Rates of DSM-IV-TR trauma exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder among newly matriculated college students. Psychol Trauma 2011; 3(2): 148-56.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0021260] [PMID: 25621098]
[80]
Avant EM, Davis JL, Cranston CC. Posttraumatic stress symptom clusters, trauma history, and substance use among college students. J Aggress Maltreat Trauma 2011; 20(5): 539-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10926771.2011.588153]
[81]
Sessa B, Nutt DJ. MDMA, politics and medical research: have we thrown the baby out with the bathwater? J Psychopharmacol (Oxford) 2007; 21(8): 787-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881107084738] [PMID: 17984158]
[82]
Rucker JJH, Iliff J, Nutt DJ. Psychiatry & the psychedelic drugs. Past, present & future. Neuropharmacology 2018; 142: 200-18.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.12.040] [PMID: 29284138]
[83]
Studerus E, Kometer M, Hasler F, Vollenweider FX. Acute, subacute and long-term subjective effects of psilocybin in healthy humans: a pooled analysis of experimental studies. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford) 2011; 25(11): 1434-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0269881110382466] [PMID: 20855349]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy