[1]
Aller MA, Arias N, Fuentes-Julian S, et al. Coupling inflammation with evo-devo. Med Hypotheses 2012; 78: 721-31.
[2]
Malekzadeh MM, Vahedi H, Gohari K, et al. Emerging epidemic of inflammatory bowel disease in a middle income country: A nation-wide study from Iran. Arch Iran Med 2016; 19: 2-15.
[3]
Holleran G, Lopetuso LR, Ianiro G, et al. Gut microbiota and inflammatory bowel disease: So far so gut! Minerva Gastroenterol Dietol 2017; 63: 373-84.
[4]
Watkinson G. Sulphasalazine: A review of 40 years’ experience. Drugs 1986; 32: 1-11.
[5]
Li W, Zhang ZM, Jiang XL. Once daily vs multiple daily mesalamine therapy for mild-to-moderate ulcerative colitis: A meta-analysis. Colorectal Dis 2016; 18: 214-23.
[6]
Kornbluth A, Sachar DB. Practice Parameters committee of the American college of gastroenterology. Ulcerative colitis practice guidelines in adults (update): American College of Gastroenterology, practice parameters committee. Am J Gastroenterol 2004; 99: 1371-85.
[7]
Lim WC, Wang Y, MacDonald JK, Hanauer S. Aminosalicylates for induction of remission or response in Crohn’s disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016; 7: CD008870.
[8]
Margetts PJ, Churchill DN, Alexopoulou I. Interstitial nephritis in patients with IBD treated with mesalamine. J Clin Gastroenterol 2001; 32: 176-8.
[9]
Biasi F, Leonarduzzi G, Oteiza PI, Poli G. IBD: Mechanisms, redox considerations, and therapeutic targets. Antioxid Redox Signal 2013; 19: 1711-47.
[10]
Michielan A, D’Inca’ R. Intestinal permeability in IBD: Pathogenesis, clinical evaluation, and therapy of leaky gut. Mediators Inflamm 2015; 2015: 628157.
[11]
Mitsuyama K, Matsumoto S, Masuda J, et al. Therapeutic strategies for targeting the IL-6/STAT-3 cytokine signaling pathway in IBD. Anticancer Res 2007; 27: 3749-56.
[12]
Schmetterer KG, Pickl WF. The IL-10/STAT-3 axis: Contributions to immune tolerance by thymus and peripherally-derived regulatory T-cells. Eur J Immunol 2017; 47: 1256-65.
[13]
Actis GC, Pellicano R. The pathologic galaxy modulating the genotype and phenotype of inflammatory bowel diseases: Comorbidity, contiguity, and genetic and epigenetic factors. Minerva Med 2016; 107: 401-12.
[14]
Wehkamp J, Salzman NH, Porter E, et al. Reduced Paneth cell alpha-defensins in ileal Crohn’s disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005; 102: 18129-34.
[15]
Mosca S, Bottino V, Camera A. Acute self-limited colitis complicating diagnostic colonoscopy. Am J Gastroenterol 2001; 96: 1669-70.
[16]
Holtmann MH, Galle PR. Current concepts of pathophysiological understanding and natural course of ulcerative colitis. Langenbecks Arch Surg 2004; 389: 341-9.
[17]
Hendriksen C, Kreiner S, Binder V. Long-term prognosis in ulcerative colitis – based on results from a regional patient group from the county of Copenhagen. Gut 1985; 26: 158-63.
[18]
Gomollón F, Dignass A, Annese V, et al. 3rd European evidence-based consensus on the diagnosis and management of Crohn’s Disease 2016: Part 1: Diagnosis and medical management. J Crohn’s Colitis 2017; 11: 3-25.
[19]
Preiss JC, Zeitz M. Use of methotrexate in patients with IBD. Clin Exp Rheumatol 2010; 28: S151-5.
[20]
Feagan BG, Rochon J, Fedorak RN, et al. Methotrexate for the treatment of Crohn’s Disease. N Engl J Med 1995; 332: 292-7.
[21]
Van Dieren J, Kuipers E, Samsom J, Nieuwenhuis EE, van der Woude CJ. Revisiting the immune modulators tacrolimus, methotrexate, and mycophenolate mofetil: Their mechanisms of action and role in the treatment of IBD. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2006; 12: 311-27.
[22]
Te HS, Schiano TD, Kuan SF, et al. Hepatic effects of long-term methotrexate use in the treatment of IBD. Am J Gastroenterol 2000; 95: 3150-60.
[23]
Nobel Foundation. Autobiography of Gertrude B Elion, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 1988. Oncologist 2006; 11: 966-8.
[24]
Sahasranaman S, Howard D, Roy S. Clinical pharmacology and pharmacogenetics of thiopurines. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2008; 64: 753-67.
[25]
Bean RH. The treatment of chronic ulcerative colitis with 6-mercaptopurine. Med J Aust 1962; 49: 592-3.
[26]
Hawthorne AB, Logan RF, Hawkey CJ, et al. Randomized controlled trial of azathioprine withdrawal in ulcerative colitis. BMJ 1992; 305: 20-2.
[27]
Present DH, Korelitz BI, Wisch N, et al. Treatment of Crohn’s disease with 6-MP. A long-term, randomized, double-blind study. N Engl J Med 1980; 302: 981-7.
[28]
Axelrad JE, Roy A, Lawlor G, Korelitz B, Lichtiger S. Thiopurines in IBD: Current evidence and historical perspectives. World J Gastroenterol 2016; 22: 10103-17.
[29]
Gargallo CJ, Lué A, Gomollón F. Biosimilars in inflammatory bowel disease. Minerva Med 2017; 108: 239-54.
[30]
Mahadevan U. Medical treatment of ulcerative colitis. Clin Colon Rectal Surg 2004; 17: 7-19.
[31]
Ben-Horin S, Goldstein I, Fudim E, et al. Early preservation of effector functions followed by eventual T-cell memory depletion: A model for the delayed onset of the effects of thiopurines. Gut 2009; 58: 396-403.
[32]
Cosnes J, Bourrier A, Lahare D, et al. Early administration of azathioprine vs conventional management of Crohn’s disease: A randomized controlled trial. Gastroenterology 2013; 145: 758-65.
[33]
Panes J, Lopez-Sanroman A, Bermejo F, et al. Early azathioprine therapy is no more effective than placebo for newly diagnosed Crohn’s Disease. Gastroenterology 2013; 145: 766-74.
[34]
Marshall JK, Otley AR, Waqqas A, et al. Canadian Association of Gastroenterology position statement regarding the use of thiopurines for the treatment of IBD. Can J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2014; 28: 371-2.
[35]
Actis GC, Fadda M, Pellicano R, et al. The 17-yr single-center experience with the use of azathioprine to maintain remission in ulcerative colitis. Biomed Pharmacother 2009; 63: 362-5.
[36]
Cassinotti A, Actis GC, Duca P, et al. Maintenance treatment with azathioprine in ulcerative colitis: Outcome and predictive factors after drug withdrawal. Am J Gastroenterol 2009; 104: 2760-7.
[37]
Actis GC, Pellicano R, Rosina F. 6-MP for azathioprine intolerant IBD: Literature search and reappraisal of own data. Inflamm Allergy Drug Targets 2015; 14: 133-7.
[38]
Actis GC, Rosina F. Out-patient care for IBD at a primary referral hospital in Turin. Minerva Gastroenterol Dietol 2010; 56: 27-34.
[40]
Margagnoni G, Fasci-Spurio F, Feigusch L, Koch M, Papi C, Aratari A. Long-term course of UC in the pre-biologic era. A retrospective study in a tertiary level Center. Minerva Gastroenterol Dietol 2014; 60: 275-83.
[41]
Saibeni S, Virgilio T, D’Incà R, et al. The use of thiopurines for the treatment of inflammatory bowel diseases in clinical practice. Dig Liver Dis 2008; 40: 814-20.
[42]
Fraser AG, Orchard TR, Jewell DP. The efficacy of azathioprine for the treatment of IBD: A 30-yr experience. Gut 2002; 50: 485-9.
[43]
Bardhan KD, Simmonds N, Royston C, Dhar A, Edwards CM. Rotherham IBD Database Users Group. A UK IBD database: Making the effort worthwhile. J Crohn’s Colitis 2010; 4: 405-12.
[44]
Kirchgesner J, Lemaitre M, Rudnichi A, et al. Therapeutic management of inflammatory bowel disease in real-life practice in the current era of anti-TNF agents: Analysis of the French administrative health databases 2009-2014. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2017; 45: 37-49.
[45]
Allen PB, Olivera P, Emery P, et al. Review article: Moving towards common therapeutic goals in Crohn’s disease and rheumatoid arthritis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2017; 45: 1058-72.
[46]
Colombel JF, Rheinisch W, Mantzaris GJ, et al. Randomized clinical trial: Deep remission in biologic and immunomodulator naïve patients with Crohns disease - A SONIC post-hoc analysis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2015; 41: 734-46.
[47]
Prieux- Klotz C, Nahon S, Amiot A, et al. Rate and predictors of mucosal healing in UC treated with thiopurines: Results of a multicentric cohort study. Dig Dis Sci 2017; 62: 473-80.
[48]
Actis GC, Pellicano R, David E, Sapino A. Azathioprine, mucosal healing in UC, and the chemoprevention of colitic cancer: A clinical-practice-based forecast. Inflamm Allergy Drug Targets 2010; 9: 6-9.
[49]
Gong J, Zhu L, Guo Z, et al. Use of thiopurines and risk of colorectal neoplasia in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: A meta-analysis. PLoS One 2013; 8: e811487.
[50]
Eriksson C, Cao Y, Rundquist S, et al. Changes in medical management and colectomy rates; A population-based cohort study on the epidemiology and natural history of ulcerative colitis in Örebro, Sweden. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2017; 46: 748-57.
[51]
Korelitz BI. Enduring value of thiopurines for inflammatory bowel disease therapy. Dig Dis Sci 2017; 62: 292-3.
[52]
Kansen HM, vanRheenen PF, Houwen RHJ, et al. Less anti-infliximab antibody formation in pediatric Crohn’s patients on concomitant immune modulators. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2017; 65: 425-9.
[53]
Dart RJ, Irving PM. Optimizing use of thiopurines in inflammatory bowel disease. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2017; 13: 877-88.
[54]
Kennedy NA, Kalla R, Warner B, et al. Thiopurine withdrawal during sustained clinical remission in IBD: relapse and recapture rates, with predictive factors in 237 patients. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2014; 40: 1313-23.
[55]
Park MS, Kim DH, Kim DH, et al. Leukopenia predicts remission in patients with IBD and Behḉet on thiopurine maintenance. Dig Dis Sci 2015; 60: 195-204.
[56]
Setshedi M, Epstein D, Winter TA, Myer L, Watermeyer G, Hift R. Use of thiopurines in IBD is associated with an increased risk of non-melanoma skin cancer in an at-risk population: A cohort study. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012; 27: 385-9.
[57]
Colombel JF, Panaccione R, Bossuyt P, et al. Effect of tight control management on Crohn’s disease (CALM): A multicentre, randomised, controlled phase 3 trial. Lancet 2018; 390: 2779-89.
66
12
1