Humanitarian Crises and International Relations 1959-2013

This introductory chapter outlines the definition of human intervention and retraces the genealogy of the concept “humanitarian” in relation with the International System. The aim in doing so is to contextualize the notion of humanitarian crises and humanitarian intervention. I note the conclusion of the bipolar international order drastically altered conceptualization of humanitarian crises, humanitarian action, and humanitarian intervention. The implications continue to shape the international system.

This chapter outlines the conceptual underpinnings of the notion of charity. More specifically, the notion of charity is explained in the religious contexts of Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism. This chapter also maps the historical shifts to decouple Western notions of charity from religious associations.

This chapter analyses ancient and recent History of Tibet to interpret the Tibetan crisis in 1950. The Chinese invasion of Tibet and the implications are outlined to shed light on the appropriate designation of the crisis. The questions are posed: are the mass killings in Tibet during this period constitute genocide, ethnocide, or a cultural genocide? Alternatively, to what extent could the catastrophe be attributed to the political food crisis during the Great Leap Forward?

This chapter retraces the recent history of Ethiopia between 1974 and 1985. Specifically, the interest lies in the downfall of King Haile Selassie and the aftermath. The chapter focuses on the implications of the drought, the political revolution to oust King Selassie, and the years of Mengistu rule. This chapter stresses the significance of the Ethiopian crisis as a turning point in the History of Humanitarian action.

This chapter examines the Somalia crisis in 1992-1994 in light of the clan system and the post-Cold War paradigm. In this chapter, I retrace the national collapse of Somalia and critique the mismanaged UNSC-mandated intervention as fueling further instability.

This chapter explores the Yugoslavian crisis in 1992-1999. The methodical dissolution of the former Yugoslavia demonstrates the impact of the collapse of a bipolar order of the Cold War. In this chapter, I reflect on the history of Yugoslavia to couch the crumbling of the former nation, but more crucially, the pervasive ethnic nationalism. The demise of Tito and the rise of Milosevic’s brand of Serb national revolution in 1986-1989 set the stage for the consolidation of the ethnic-majority enclaves. The chapter examines the wars in Croatia in 1991-92, in Bosnia 1992-1995, and Kosovo 1998-1999 to frame the ambiguous responses of the International community.

In this chapter, I unpack the factors to contribute to the Rwandan genocide in 1994, as well as the implications on the nation and the international system. This chapter highlights the legacy of Belgium’s colonial enterprise in the 19th century as a driver of ethnic animosity. International inaction represents the ebb of United Nations Security Council-mandated intervention.

The Congo wars 1996-2003 underscore the importance of scale of regional conflicts. In many aspects, Congo crisis’s had been interpreted as the extension of the Rwandan genocide. The chapter stresses the significance of the colonial legacy. I trace the brutality of the Belgian colonization of Congo as a framework to grasp the ongoing structural challenges the nation faced since independence.

Five important drivers are invoked to explain the Darfur ethnocide in 2003- 2009. The economic decline of the sultanate in the 19^th century, colonial negligence, Ghaddafi’s ambitions in the region in the eighties, dire droughts in the nineties, Arabian-African ethnic cleavage aggravated by famine, and finally, the harsh competition for scarce resources. This chapter provides crucial context for the conflict and crisis in Darfur.

In this chapter, I peel back layers of Afghan history to highlight the challenges faced by any government in Afghanistan. Since King Habibullah, the country was vulnerable to foreign control and invasion due to the geography and lack of resources. Afghanistan has been in a constant state of war since 1979, and arguably prior to then. This chapter underscores the importance of a local solution to the ongoing conflict as a way to end the humanitarian crisis.

In this chapter, I focus on the importance of the human impact of humanitarian crises. This chapter recalls the fact that these conflicts have severe implications on humans, and seeks to extricate the discussion from international politics. I focus on the significance of a nuanced approach to working with refugees. It reflects on the notion of exile, gender and narrative of persecutions.

This chapter traces the evolution in the notion of humanitarian intervention and recapitulates the conclusions from the prior case studies. The persistent redefinition of the criteria of humanitarian crises – the basis for humanitarian intervention – as well as the types of international response demonstrates the importance of the mediation and contextualization of conflicts. The rhetoric, such as genocide, civil war, or insurgency, employed to describe humanitarian crises offered an important window into the increasingly politicized nature of humanitarian crises and humanitarian intervention, but similarly prompted questions on ways to downplay the influence of international politics.