Cocaine and its Effects on the Brain
Page: 1-9 (9)
Author: Jayalakshmi Krishnan*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815223828124010002
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Brain’s limbic system is the target site of action of cocaine. This area of the
brain is involved in pleasure and motivation. Cocaine causes the dopamine build-up in
the synapses by creating a feeling of being “high”. Cocaine induces action by binding
to the dopamine transporter, which transports excess dopamine back to the presynaptic
neuron. The nucleus accumbens (NAc) of the limbic system is the primary target of
cocaine action. Cocaine also alters gene expression in the limbic system by altering
dopamine transporters or dopamine receptors. Cocaine causes auditory hallucinations,
restlessness, paranoia, and psychosis. This chapter reviews the impact of cocaine on the
brain.
Heroin and its Effects on the Brain
Page: 10-13 (4)
Author: Jayalakshmi Krishnan*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815223828124010003
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
As per the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) and the Controlled
Substances Act (CSA) reports, heroin is a Schedule I drug. Heroin causes addiction to
the brain like any other addictive substance. Heroin addiction has both long-term and
short-term effects on the body. The brain has natural opioid receptors. Heroin is a
synthetic opioid. When taken regularly, the brain stops making its own natural opioids.
This affects the pain/reward system and causes withdrawal symptoms in patients.
Heroin addiction damages the brain's reward system and breathing. Less breathing
causes less oxygen supply to the brain. There are reports that state that dementia-like
situation is created in the brain due to heroin abuse. Heroin lipophilicity allows the
entry of it into the Blood Brain Barrier. μ-opioid receptors (MOR), causing the
addictive effects of the heroin in the brain. Dementia symptoms, memory issues, and
mental health changes like depression or anxiety are the symptoms that are caused by
heroin abuse. Both individual and environmental factors influence a person's ability to
abuse heroinanopioid which provides intense feelings of pleasure.
MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine)
Page: 14-21 (8)
Author: Jayalakshmi Krishnan*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815223828124010004
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine (MDMA) is a synthetic drug very
similar to hallucinogens and stimulants. This drug is also called ecstasy or molly. It
produces feelings of pleasure, warmth, distorted sensory time and perception. MDMA
increases the activity of serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain. It causes
various health effects such as nausea, sweating, chills, muscle cramping, etc. The effect
of this drug can be seen in 3 to 5 hours in the body. A spike in body temperature can be
seen in MDMA users that can be fatal as it affects the liver, kidney, and heart leading
to death. Addiction to MDMA is not yet proven, however, withdrawal symptoms such
as fatigue and depression are noted. MDMA is usually taken via the mouth or snorting
in the form of tablets or capsules. This drug is also taken or abused along with other
drugs such as LSD, alcohol, and marijuana. MDMA is a scheduled drug with no proven
medical use. MDMA causes a surge of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine in the
brain to regulate mood, learning, memory, stress, anxiety, etc. This chapter discusses
the effects of MDMA on the human brain.
LSD (Lysergic Acid Diethylamide)
Page: 22-28 (7)
Author: Jayalakshmi Krishnan*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815223828124010005
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
LSD is a potent hallucinogen. It was first synthesised in 1938. It is marketed
under numerous names. Ergot, a fungus that develops on rye and grains, is used to
make LSD. The effect of LSD is mind-altering, pleasurable, and stimulating.
Sometimes, exposure to this drug causes so-called unpleasant experiences, such as “bad
trips”. It is classified as a Class 1 drug (highly abused) by the Drug Enforcement
Agency. Paranoia or psychosis can occur as a negative sequence of taking LSD.
Changes in perception, sense of time and space, and mood are reported due to the use
of LSD. This medication can be taken orally or through the tongue using tablets,
droplets, or blotter paper. LSD is marketed in the streets as blotter paper, thin squares
of gelatin, tablet form, liquid sugar cubes, and pure liquid form. Since this is a mindaltering drug, it causes changes in serotonin levels in the brain. LSD affects one's
ability to make rational decisions. Speaking with a healthcare professional, talk
therapy, and additional medical therapy are options since there is no medication to treat
LSD.
Methamphetamine
Page: 29-38 (10)
Author: Jayalakshmi Krishnan*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815223828124010006
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Methamphetamine (METH) is a highly addictive stimulant that affects the
central nervous system. It is a widely abused psychostimulant. Monoaminergic
neurotransmitter terminals are affected by METH intake. METH structure is very
similar to amphetamine, a drug used to treat attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD). METH is taken in various modes, such as smoking, swallowing, snorting,
injecting powder, etc. Dopamine levels, serotonin levels, and norepinephrine levels are
increased due to METH uptake, leading to extremely strong euphoric effects. This
dopamine surge causes the brain to repeatedly take the drug and is responsible for
addiction. As a short-term effect, METH causes increased wakefulness and physical
activity, decreased appetite, faster breathing, rapid and/or irregular heartbeat, increased
blood pressure, and body temperature. METH overdose causes hyperthermia and
convolution, which can lead to death if not treated. METH also causes irreversible
brain damage. Amphetamine psychosis, dementia-like symptoms, increased anti-social
behaviour, and increased susceptibility to neurodegenerative diseases are the long-term
neurological effects of METH use.
Morphine
Page: 39-44 (6)
Author: Jayalakshmi Krishnan*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815223828124010007
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Morphine is a Schedule II drug and it is used in pain treatment. Like other
opioid drugs, it also has addictive properties. The other street names of Morphine
include M, Miss Emma, Monkey, Roxanol, and White Stuff. There are natural
alkaloids come from the resin of opium poppy, Papaver somniferum. Morphine is
attached to the receptors in the brain and spinal cord to block pain signals. Morphine
impacts the level of dopamine and serotonin by acting in the brain's reward system.
Breathing and heart rate are also modified due to morphine which has both short-term
and long-term effects. Morphine can last up to 4 to 6 hours in blood. It also acts on the
dendrites and spines in order to change the plasticity of the neurons. Endogenous and
exogenous opiates target the same tissues and cells.
Ketamine
Page: 45-50 (6)
Author: Jayalakshmi Krishnan*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815223828124010008
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Ketamine is a dissociative anaesthetic drug that functions as a blocker of
NMDA receptors. Moreover, it causes a neurostimulatory effect and is also used as a
sedative. Ketamine has many names, such as Special K, Green K, Super K, Super Acid,
Jet, and Cat Valium. Ketamine is used as a recreational drug in clubs, also known as a
“club drug”. As a recreational drug, it causes the patient to experience delirium and an
altered state of consciousness. Patients with cardiovascular disabilities can also be
given ketamine as a sedative. Ketamine can be taken in various methods, such as
orally, rectally, intranasally, IV, IM, or intrathecally. Ketamine abuse can lead to
secondary renal damage and upper gastrointestinal symptoms.
Fentanyl
Page: 51-58 (8)
Author: Jayalakshmi Krishnan*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815223828124010009
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Fentanyl is an opioid usually used in general anaesthesia, due to which it is
also called an analgesic drug. These drugs can relieve the pain within the body by
blocking the neurotransmitters or chemicals that cause pain in the body. Opioids can
work in both the ascending pathways of the brain as well as the descending pathways
of the brain for pain modulation. Fentanyl is more potent than morphine and herion.
Fentanyl is also given as transdermal patches or lozenges in the treatment of pain
management. Fentanyl is also sold illegally and can cause of death too when abused.
Because of its strong property to be addicted, fentanyl also is mixed with the heroine.
Moreover, fentanyl has its own effects during withdrawal, which causes behaviour
changes. Fentanyl can bind to μ-opioid receptors (MORs) to exert its effects. In
addition, fentanyl abuse is becoming more common globally. Fentanyl causes the brain
to suffocate by decreasing the oxygen supply, causing hypoxia and hyperglycemia as
well. Fentanyl abuse can cause serious cognitive issues, leading to severe structural
damage manifested as hormonal and neuronal disturbances. By suppressing the two
brainstem areas, opioids cause disturbances to breathing.
Alcohol
Page: 59-69 (11)
Author: Jayalakshmi Krishnan*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815223828124010010
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Alcohol affects brain activity in various ways. It has both short-term and
long-term effects. It causes slurred speech, short-term memory dysfunctions
hallucinations, etc. by timing the activity of neuronal cells. Moreover, it causes
teratogenic effects in the fetus ifthe mother is consuming alcohol during pregnancy.
Alcohol can damage the brain cells, cause a lowering of serotonin levels, and higher
GABA levels, cease new brain cells to be formed, and cause damage to the blood
vessels and nerve cells in the brain. In addition, alcohol abuse causes WernickeKorsakoff’s syndrome, which is due to the lack of vitamin B1 in drinkers. Also, alcohol
abuse causes Wernicke’s encephalopathy which is characterised by muscle problems,
being confused, etc. Memory loss and less coordination are the long-term effects of
alcohol abuse. All regions of the brain, such as the cerebellum, limbic system, and
cerebral cortex, can be affected by alcohol abuse. The cerebellum is responsible for the
movement of the body, and alcohol disrupts this balance causing emotional and
memory issues. Alcohol consumption on a regular basis leads to reduced brain size or a
rapid aging process. Alcohol disorder is listed as one of the most prevalent mental
health problems in the world.
Nicotine
Page: 70-73 (4)
Author: Jayalakshmi Krishnan*
DOI: 10.2174/9789815223828124010011
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Nicotine is present in the tobacco products. Once smoked, nicotine
immediately reaches the brain and binds with nicotinic receptors causing damage to the
brain cells. The adolescent brain is especially very sensitive to products such as e-cigarettes, nicotine, and tobacco. Chronic nicotine exposure causes permanent brain
damage and cognitive decline. Interestingly there are reports on the use of nicotine and
its effects on the epigenetic changes in the brain. These kinds of changes may prepare
the brain for further abuse of various illegal drugs. As a result of chronic nicotine
exposure brain infarcts, white matter hyperintensities, brain atrophy, and dementia are
also known to occur. Neurodevelopment in children is potentially harmed due to
exposure to nicotine and nicotinic products. This is due to the inflammation,
atherosclerosis, and oxidative stress to the neuronal cells. Pregnant mothers and people
who are at risk of developing neurodegenerative disease need to be forbidden from
using nicotine. Nicotine can be dangerous when taken with alcohol as it can lead to
depression and neurocognitive decline. This chapter addresses the effects of nicotine on
the adolescent and adult brain.
Introduction
Drug Addiction Mechanisms in the Brain explores the fascinating world of drug substances and their effects on the brain. This book provides a comprehensive overview of the ten major substances that contribute to drug addiction Information about each substance is presented in a specific chapter, shedding light on their biochemical mechanisms and physiological effects. From the stimulating effects of cocaine to the sedative properties of heroin, and the hallucinogenic experiences induced by LSD, the book takes the reader through the intricate pathways of addiction. Other substances covered in the book include alcohol, nicotine, MDMA, METH, morphine, ketamine, and fentanyl. Readers will gain an understanding about neurochemical alterations in the brain Anyone looking for interesting knowledge about the addictive nature of common drugs and their complex interplay with the brain will find this book informative.