Terpenes, Terpenoids and Steroids: Properties, Biosynthesis and Functions
Page: 1-38 (38)
Author: Masrat Maswal*, Meeshu Pandita and Shabnum Bashir
DOI: 10.2174/789815049336123010003
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Terpenes belong to the largest class of secondary metabolites consisting of
five carbon isoprene units which are assembled through innumerable patterns
generating diverse structural motifs. Terpenes are linear or cyclic hydrocarbons,
whereas terpenoids are oxygen-containing terpene analogues found in all living
organisms. Steroids are a subclass of terpenoids that are biosynthesized from terpene
precursors. Terpenes, terpenoids and steroids are all derived from five-carbon isoprene
units assembled and arranged in different ways generating thousands of structurally
varied molecules. Terpenes and terpenoids are widely explored as biomaterials and
biofuels while steroids are used as drugs to increase protein synthesis in animals
besides their anti-inflammatory, anticancer and other properties. In this chapter, we
discuss the properties, functions and biosynthesis of terpenes and terpenoids in general
and steroids in particular to better understand their functions and prospective
applications.
An Overview of Natural Steroid Sources and their Therapeutic Profile
Page: 39-58 (20)
Author: Mahalakshmi Krishnan, Livya Catherene Martin, Parimalanandhini Duraisamy, Sangeetha Ravi, Beulaja Manikandan, Janarthanan Sundaram and Ramar Manikandan*
DOI: 10.2174/789815049336123010004
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Natural steroids are organic compounds that play important physiological
roles in various organisms. They are the key components of a cell, which act as
important signalling molecules engaging in stress response, metabolic activities,
reproduction, inflammation, and behavioural uniformities. Naturally, the human body
embraces a cluster of steroids in the form of biological hormones, namely, sex
hormones, adrenal cortical hormones and bile acids. Steroidal derivatives can imitate
human hormones and exhibit their activities by boosting enzymes that the body lacks.
Clinically, it is evident that the distribution of synthetic steroids is high in
pharmaceutical use for hormonal anomalies, but they provide adverse side effects over
long term usage. Steroids work as immunosuppressants to control many autoimmune
disorders concerned with inflammation, but they also reduce the activity of the immune
system, which is the body’s natural defence against infection and illness. Replacement
of natural steroids sourced from herbal plants, marine invertebrates, bacteria, algae, and
fungi has a medicinal value that aids in the treatment of various ailments. Apart from
hormonal functions, bio-derived steroids also display a safe and copious
pharmacological profile for anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-neoplastic, neuroprotective, and cardioprotective activities. This chapter discusses the
prevalence of various naturally available steroids in different entities and their suitable
applications in various fields.
Synthesis of Steroids
Page: 59-83 (25)
Author: Aneesa Muzaffar*, Umaiya Muzaffar and Rakesh Donepudi
DOI: 10.2174/789815049336123010005
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
The term steroid pertains to a broad spectrum of molecules with varying
physiological roles. More explicitly, they are a class of compounds that are naturally
produced in the body of living organisms as well synthetic or semi-synthetic molecules.
They have tremendous effects on biochemical processes and thus any aberration from
the required physiological range can have potential effects. Moreover, due to the
therapeutic potential of steroids for the treatment of a wide range of diseases, many
synthetic approaches have been made available to the organic chemist for their
synthesis. Most of the steroids that are in use as drugs are still prepared by modifying
naturally occurring steroids (partial synthesis). This chapter highlights the biosynthetic
pathways of steroids and the approaches to chemically synthesize them because of their
biological and synthetic relevance.
Biotransformation of Steroids: Accelerating Discovery of New Drugs in the Pharmaceutical Industry
Page: 84-97 (14)
Author: Sadia Sultan*, Gurmeet Kaur Surindar Singh*, Kamran Ashraf and Muhammad Ashraf
DOI: 10.2174/789815049336123010006
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Natural products account for 60% of the total market, making them a major
source of drug discovery. Some of these are sourced from the cultivation of
microorganisms. Microbial transformation is an example of the application of the
cultivation of microorganisms. It is a method of modifying the chemical structure of
compounds such as steroids by microorganisms. The diversity of the possible reaction
types in microbial transformation includes the process of oxidation, hydroxylation,
esterification, isomerization, reduction, acetylation, hydrogenation and glycosylation.
Therefore, screening of new microbial strains for specific bioconversions is essential
for bioprospecting. This chapter reviews a range of previous studies that have used
fungi for biotransformation.
Biological Significance of Steroids
Page: 98-124 (27)
Author: Sushma Devi*, Parveen Kumar and Gagandeep Kaur
DOI: 10.2174/789815049336123010007
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Steroids display varied biological functions and play a crucial role in the
fascinating fields of biology, chemistry, and medicine.Steroids encompass wideranging natural products which are abundantly encountered in eukaryotic organisms.
These exhibit a pivotal role in regulating the cellular functions of animals, plants, and
fungi. Furthermore, they act as chemical messengers in the human body and get
secreted in the systemic circulation and extracellular fluids, where they regulate
metabolic, immune, and reproductive functions. Steroids are the fundamental
components of cell membranes and serve primarily as signalling molecules. This
chapter gives a comprehensive overview of physiologically active steroids in various
organisms.The biological activities of various steroid classes have been discussed in
detail. Glucocorticoids are a class of steroid hormones that regulate the metabolic
processes involving the formation of glucose from amino acids and fatty acid
deposition of glycogen in the liver. Another important group of hormones, called
mineralocorticoids, helps in balancing water and electrolyte content in the body and
primarily affects the kidney. The principal class of steroids viz. the sex hormones are
essentially crucial for the development and maintenance of reproductive function and
cause stimulation of secondary sexual characteristics in humans. To summarize,
steroids stabilize and regulate the structure and functions of cellular membranes and
play a crucial role in regulating growth and development.
A Comprehensive Overview of Estrogen: Physiological and Pathological Insights
Page: 125-148 (24)
Author: Rafia Jan* and Jahangir Nabi
DOI: 10.2174/789815049336123010008
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Estrogens (estrone, estriol, and estradiol) are a class of steroidal hormones
produced by developing ovarian follicles. These hormones induce various cyclic events
in the uterine endothelium and vaginal epithelium and make the female body
competent for conception and ultimately for motherly care. While estrogen is primarily
produced by ovaries from cholesterol, the non-reproductive tissues including the brain,
liver, and heart also produce a considerable amount of it. Apart from its important role
in controlling sexual behavior and reproductive function, estrogen also functions in the
regulation of various physiological functions including reproduction, skin physiology,
cardiovascular health, skeletal homeostasis, bone integrity, electrolyte balance,
cognition, and behavior. These biological functions are regulated by diffusion through
the plasma membrane in vitro signaling through specific binding to nuclear receptors
such as estrogen receptors (ERα and ERβ) or binding to cell membrane receptors such
as GPR30 and ER-X. The signaling mechanism can be genomic (change in gene
expression) or non-genomic (activation of various signaling cascades). Disruption in
estrogen functioning has a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of many diseases such as
osteoporosis, insulin resistance, neurodegenerative disease, obesity, and endometriosis.
Also, dysregulation in the levels of estrogen has been linked to the development of
many cancers such as breast cancer, etc. This chapter aims to summarize the complete
insight of estrogen by providing a clear understanding of its synthesis, receptor
binding, signaling, regulation of physiological functions, and role in various diseases.
Plant Cardenolides: Multifunctional Medicinal Agents
Page: 149-174 (26)
Author: Veenu Joshi, Akanksha Sahu, Ajay James, Amber Vyas and Neelu Joshi*
DOI: 10.2174/789815049336123010009
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Cardenolides are a class of compounds steroidal in nature, belonging to the
cardiac glycoside group of secondary metabolites. They consist of a sugar part and a
non-sugar part consisting of a steroidal cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene ring with
lactone substitution at the β-17 position. Cardenolides are found in angiosperm plant
families like Plantiginaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Apocynaceae, Brassicaceae, Cruciferae,
Liliaceae, Moraceae, Ranunculaceae, and Scrophulariaceae. These include some
important glycosides, such as digitoxin, digoxin, Ouabain, Calotropin, etc. with
profound pharmacological potential. Moreover, cardenolides have toxic effects for
which these have been used in poison arrows and for self-harm purposes. Traditionally,
these were used to treat congestive heart failure. However, recently they have emerged
as promising agents to exhibit anticancer, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective,
and various other therapeutic roles. Cardenolides like Digoxin and Digitoxin have been
used in the treatment of heart failure and atrial fibrillation. Toxicarioside A, and
Calotropin have been reported to suppress tumor growth and are used as anticancer
agents, Strophalloside and Oubain are reported to be involved in apoptosis. Oleandrin
is an antiproliferative agent and can inhibit IL-8 which is responsible for cystic fibrosis.
Immunological Significance of Steroids and Implications for Immune Related Diseases
Page: 175-194 (20)
Author: Sangeetha Ravi, Parimalanandhini Duraisamy, Mahalakshmi Krishnan, Livya Catherene Martin, Raman Thiagarajan, Angusamy Annapoorani, Munuswamy Arumugam, Sundaram Janarthanan and Ramar Manikandan*
DOI: 10.2174/789815049336123010010
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
This book chapter compiles a general idea of steroids and their overall
biological significance in immunity and immune-associated diseases. Steroids
chemically comprise a group of cyclical organic compounds constituted by seventeen
carbon atoms that consist of four fused rings called sterane, and
cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene. The four-ringed structures are mainly synthesized
by mitochondria and smooth endoplasmic reticulum through the cyclization of thirty-carbon chain squalene into lanosterol or cycloartenol. Steroid hormones differ only in
number of oxygen and carbon atoms, but all are derived from cholesterol. The
biological significance of steroids and their derivatives range from energy metabolism,
and body growth to the control of reproductive activities. However, deficiency or
malfunctioning of steroids can lead to direct effects on body salt/sugar levels, sexual
differentiation and immunity. As far as immune responses are concerned, a lot of
research works have emerged which show the importance of steroids in immune
regulation, and in extreme cases, they are also known to result in immune-related
diseases. Most of these effects are mediated by the influence of steroids on gene
expression in cells and this could in turn prove to be novel drug targets as well. We
have made an attempt in this chapter to update and highlight the role of steroids in
immune regulation and immune-related diseases, which we hope would open up
therapeutic options for diseases.
Heterocyclic Steroids
Page: 195-211 (17)
Author: Mukesh M. Mudgal* and Mangesh M. Mudgal
DOI: 10.2174/789815049336123010011
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Steroids are organic compounds with four rings arranged in a precise
molecular configuration and are involved in many biological functions displaying a
wide spectrum of biological activities and diverse chemical reactivities. Structural
modifications of the steroidal rings have attracted a considerable amount of attention
recently. Steroids of natural origin have been modified in several ways, particularly in
the cyclopentanophenanthrene ring system with heteroatoms such as nitrogen, oxygen,
and/or sulfur or with the heterocyclic ring to obtain more active compounds with less
or no harmful side effects and are termed as heterosteroids or heterocyclic steroids.
Heterocyclic steroids are enticing as the minor modifications to the steroidal molecules,
produce remarkable differences in their biological activities. The introduction of the
heteroatom in the skeleton of a steroidal molecule often poses challenges to organic
chemists, demanding the exploration of new synthetic reactions and new synthetic
routes. In this article, the overview of the various synthetic strategies employed to
synthesize azasteroids, oxasteroids, thiasteroids, and steroids modified by the
introduction of the heterocyclic ring is broadly covered along with its biological
significance.
Spectroscopic Analysis of Steroids
Page: 212-285 (74)
Author: Tabassum Siddiqui*, Asna Khan and Arfeen Iqbal
DOI: 10.2174/789815049336123010012
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
All the steroids are basically made of seventeen carbon atom skeletons
bonded in four fused rings: three six-membered cyclohexane rings and one fivemembered cyclopentane ring, they vary from each other by having different functional
groups. Recent modifications have added heteroatoms like nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur,
selenium, etc in the basic structure of naturally occurring steroids. Heterocyclic steroids
have always been a field of interest for researchers due to their diverse biological
performances. The biological activity of steroids and heterocyclic steroids is based on
the structure they possess. Spectroscopy plays a key role in the determination of
distinct properties of numerous compounds by their interaction with electromagnetic
radiation and the sort of interactions that may occur in different regions. The structure
of different steroids and heterocyclic steroids may be established through various
spectroscopic techniques viz. Infrared spectroscopy (IR), Nuclear Magnetic
Spectroscopy (NMR), Ultraviolet spectroscopy (UV) and mass spectrometry (MS).
Destructive Effects of Steroidal Drug Abuse and their Immunological Impact
Page: 286-308 (23)
Author: Parimalanandhini Duraisamy, Sangeetha Ravi, Mahalakshmi Krishnan, Livya Catherene Martin, Beulaja Manikandan, Sundaram Janarthanan and Ramar Manikandan*
DOI: 10.2174/789815049336123010013
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Steroidal drugs are synthetic in nature that are closely identical to naturally
produced hormones in our body such as cortisol and testosterone. They are lifesavers
for several threatening medical conditions. They are currently in wide use for the
treatment of various inflammatory diseases since they are known to involve in
suppressing the immune system resulting in a reduced inflammatory process. They are
produced in different forms and do not cause any major side effects when consumed at
low doses. However, occasionally they lead to perilous side effects when taken in
appropriate doses that lead to mental health problems, high blood pressure, diabetes,
osteoporosis, etc. Practices such as the uptake of illicit anabolic steroids and
corticosteroid drugs without an appropriate prescription can potentially lead to fatal
side effects. Anabolic steroids are performance and image-enhancing drugs that were
once viewed as predicament associated with bodybuilders and have now become a
widespread problem throughout our society including children. Dietary supplements
which act as steroidal precursors also promote medical consequences that are similar to
steroids and the absence of such awareness in our society leads to varied difficulties in
our current lifestyle. The increasing concern about possible health hazards in
association with abusive steroid drug uptake should be addressed with strict measures.
It is important to educate our society about the hazardous effects of steroidal drug
abuse and the precautions that need to be carried out while using them. This chapter
highlights different types of steroid drugs that are currently in use and the deleterious
side effects caused by their abusive use. Potential treatments for their withdrawal and
preventive measures will also be addressed in detail.
Introduction
Steroids are an important class of biomolecules with diverse roles and functions. Besides being important as structural and signaling molecules, these molecules hold promise against numerous disorders, including cardiovascular conditions, cancer, inflammation and autoimmune disorders. Many investigations have demonstrated that steroidal frameworks may provide lipid solubility, receptor selectivity or membrane binding properties to non-steroidal pharmacophores. However, the therapeutic use of steroids can be dangerous when they're used incorrectly. Additionally, misconceptions about steroids among athletes or recreational users can lead to steroid abuse and poor health outcomes. Steroids and their Medicinal Potential discusses the classification, distribution, biosynthesis, chemical synthesis and semi-synthesis of different steroids. The medicinal potential of each class is exhaustively discussed in different chapters. The latest advances and developments in steroid-based drug discovery are also discussed thoroughly. The book aims to address general questions and concerns about steroids, providing readers a useful resource on the subject. Key Features -Provides comprehensive coverage on all aspects of steroids including steroid chemistry, biochemistry, medicinal potential, drug discovery and advances in target-binding interactions of steroid-based drugs -Includes chapters dedicated to anabolic steroids and their abuse -Designed as an accessible source of information for understanding steroidal drugs with structured chapters -Includes references for advanced readers