The Queen Honey Bee: Introduction, Development, Pheromones, Mating, and Role in the Colony
Page: 1-34 (34)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815079128112010002
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Apis mellifera (2n=32), commonly known as the European honey bee or the
Western honey bee, is a eusocial insect. Each honey bee colony is a composite unit of
thousands of bees, with three different castes: a polyandrous reproductively active
queen; thousands of workers; and a few hundred drones. The queen and the workers
represent the female caste that develops from fertilized eggs, whereas the drones are
male bees formed from unfertilized or fertilized eggs. In the case of the female honey
bees, the phenomenon of polyphenism can be easily highlighted, which is the
developmental plasticity of the same genomic contents to express differently as per
environmental cues. During the queen larval developmental phase, the exclusive diet is
royal jelly, which induces hyper-secretion of juvenile and ecdysone hormones that
ultimately cause sequential activation of certain genetic elements, specifically after 3rd
instar onward. For the worker honey bee larvae, initially, the diet includes royal jelly
exclusively, followed by honey, pollen grains, and worker jelly, which collectively
direct development toward the worker caste. Furthermore, for harmonious social
interaction, the queen secretes certain volatile chemical bouquets including 9-
ODA(2E)-9-oxodecenoic acid), 9-HDA (9-hydroxy-(E)-2-decenoic acid), 10-HDA
(10-hrdroxy-2-decenoic acid), HVA (4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenylethanol), HOB
(Methyl-p-hydroxybenzoate), 10-HDAA (10-hydroxydecanoic acid), OLA
(oligolactide), methyl oleate, decyl decanoate, linolenic acid, coniferyl alcohol, cetyl
alcohol, etc. The concerned pheromones facilitate the regulation of workers' behavior;
workers' ovarian suppression; retinue control; overall worker’s development
modulation; colonial product production; swarming tendency; pseudo-queen formation
suppression; mating, etc. The queen honey bee is polyandrous, as she mates with many
drones during the nuptial flight in 'Drone Congregation Areas (DCA)’, within about 2
weeks of her post-emergence. This chapter provides a comprehensive review of the
polyandrous queen honey bee; her synchronous developmental phases; her pheromone
dominance; her regulation and coordination of colonies; her mating preference and
habits; and her role in a composite hive. Subsequent chapters provide an elaborative
view of different aspects of the queen honey bees' life cycle.
The Queen Honey Bee Duties in the Composite Colonies
Page: 35-56 (22)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815079128112010003
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
In a honey bee colony, a polyandrous queen bee performs two important
duties predominantly. The first is reproduction, for modulation of colonial strength; and
the second is the secretion of queen pheromones for regulation of social organization,
developmental specification, colonial productivity control, retinue behaviour induction,
worker ovarian suppression, foraging control, swarming reduction, other queen rearing
inhibition, etc. In the female caste of honey bees, reproduction is uni-righted by a
polyandrous queen, which mates preferably with multiple drones of other colonies
during a nuptial flight in a Drone Congregation Area(DCA) and thereafter lays
fertilised or unfertilized eggs depending on in-situ and ex-situ hive ambience, whereas
worker honey bees perform the remaining tasks, including hive construction, brood
rearing, foraging for food and nectar, honey production, protection and general
organisation of the colony, pollen grain storage, water collection for the colony,
ventilation in the hive, and the removal of carcases. In other words, worker bees
perform all tasks except for reproduction and colony dominance. The specific duties
assigned reflect the rectitudinous behaviour of the honey bee colony. Additionally, the
specific division of labour enhances the competence of all honey bee castes. The
Queen's honey bee is considerably fertile due to differential genomic expression,
proteomics, and developmental specification. Further, her reproducibility is influenced
by different biotic and abiotic factors prevailing within and outside the hive. In this
chapter, a brief description of two predominant duties of the queen, including
reproduction and pheromonal secretion, is highlighted. Subsequent chapters provide
elaborative views of reproduction and pheromones.
The Queen Honey Bee Morphology, Development, and Reproductive System
Page: 57-66 (10)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815079128112010004
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
The queen bee carries the same genetic information as worker bees. Still, the
genomic expression is variable, eventually resulting in the development of an
enormously sizeable female bee, with an enriched blend of pheromone possession, a
comparatively long life span, better immunity, development, and physiology.
Differential developmental patterns compared to the workers are due to the influence of
royal jelly, ultimately inducing differential genomic expression. Furthermore, with
profound pheromone secretion, the queen regulates the colony's development,
differentiation, reproducibility, behaviour, communication, and task management. This
chapter briefly describes honey bees' morphology, development, and reproductive
system development.
Royal Jelly as Larval Food for Honey Bees
Page: 67-82 (16)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815079128112010005
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Larval feeds for different castes of honey bees include exclusively royal
jelly from 4–9 days of development for the queen, and for worker larvae, royal jelly
and worker jelly for 4-6 and 6–9 days respectively, whereas for drone larvae, royal
jelly and a blended composite mixture of honey and pollen grain for 4-6 and 6–9 days
respectively. For the queen, worker, and drone larvae, larval feeds include royal jelly
and worker jelly for 4-6 and 6–9 days respectively. Royal jelly is a thick, creamy
substance that is produced by the hypopharyngeal and mandibular glands of worker
honey bees. Its primary components include water, hydrocarbons, proteins, lipids,
minerals, vitamins, and a small amount of various types of polyphenols. Because the
queen eats different larvae than the worker bees, this triggers a chain reaction of
biochemical reactions, which ultimately leads to a high concentration of juvenile and
ecdysone hormones being released. These hormones, in turn, regulate the expression of
different genes in a sequential manner. Queen larvae have a variant proteomic that
promotes the healthy development of the female reproductive system, which in turn
leads to profound fertility and immune protection, as well as a longer life span for the
queen.
Quality Influencing Factors and Disease Resistance in Queen of Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae)
Page: 83-110 (28)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815079128112010006
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Before the 4th instar larval phase, worker larvae exhibit totipotency to
develop into either female caste. In subsequent larval stages, differential expression of
various genetic elements occurs under the prominent induction of royal jelly,
developmental hormones, and volatile queen emission. In the honey bee female caste,
anatomical reproductive disproportionality establishes due to this diversification of
genomic expression. Exponential fertility and pheromonal profiling of the queen
regulate colonial strength, colonial productivity, submissive behaviour, and the
development of workers. Different factors prevailing within the hive or outside of the
colony premises influence the queen's quality. For example, the queen's fecundity is
negatively proportional to the age of the worker larva before entering the queen
differentiation pathway. Further, numerous additional factors like genomic content,
physiology, quality and quantity of royal jelly, colonial food storage, social
environment, queen pheromones, etc. influence queen reproductive potential.
Further, queens have differential immune protective characteristics for different pathogens and parasites. This chapter highlights influencing factors for nonsynchronous ovarian development and variant immune-protective measures in female honey bees. The subsequent chapters elucidate the details of workers' ovarian programmed cell death under the regulation of multiple factors.
Differential Pheromone Secretion By Female Castes In Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae)
Page: 111-137 (27)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815079128112010007
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
The queen and worker caste of the honey bee exemplified the polyphenism
phenomenon. In specific female caste, diversification of the same genomic (2n=32)
expression ultimately induces plasticity in development, morphology, physiology,
reproduction, division of labour, immunity, and life span. Physiological plasticity is
remarkably highlighted through glandular secretion variation in female castes, as
pheromonal queen glands ensure her reproductive monopoly and dominant hierarchy in
the colony. In contrast, in workers, pheromonal profiling facilitates foraging, nursing,
alarming, colony protection, pseudo-queen formation inhibition, and other social
interactions. Queen's volatile bouquet emission contains biochemicals like 9-ODA,
OLA, HVA, 9-HDA, 10-HDA, HOB, 10-HDAA, cetyl alcohol, coniferyl alcohol,
linolenic acid, methyl oleate, and decyl decanoate. In contrast, workers' pheromones
include predominantly; isopentyl acetate (IPA), butyl acetate, 1-hexanol, n-butanol, 1-
octanol, hexyl acetate, octyl acetate, n-pentyl acetate, and 2-nonanol, (Z)-11-eicosenol,
2-heptanone, geraniol, geranial, geranic acid, (E)-citral, nerolic acid, etc. Queen and
workers secrete different pheromones following their role in the colony. This chapter
provides insights into differential pheromonal secretion in queen and worker caste
within the honey bee colony. The biochemical synthesis of pheromonal contents in
both castes is elaborated on in the next chapter
Mandibular Pheromone Types, Functions, Synthesis, And Associated Genetic Elements In The Queen Honey Bee, Apis mellifera
Page: 138-162 (25)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815079128112010008
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Queen Mandibular Pheromones (QMP) include (E)-9-oxo-2-decanoic
acid(9-ODA), (R)-and (S)-(E)-9-hydroxy-2-decanoic acid(9-HDA), methyl 4-
hydroxybenzoate(HOB), 10-hydroxy-decanoic acid (10-HDAA), 4-hydroxy-
-methoxyphenyl ethanol (HVA), and10-hydroxy-2 (E)-decanoic acid (10-HDA),
whereas worker honey bees mandibular gland pheromones include mainly 10-hydrox-
-2 (E)-decanoic acid (10-HDA),10-hydroxydecanoic acid (10-HDAA), and 2- mainly
2-heptanone (2-H), traces of 9-hydroxy-2 (E)-decanoic acid (9-HDA) and 9-ODA.
Biochemical modifications of stearic acid occur through hydroxylation of stearic acid
at ω or ω-1 positions in worker honey bee and queen, synthesizing the primary
pheromones listed above. 9-ODA pheromone influences alcohol dehydrogenase gene
expression, and the specific enzyme is essential for converting 9-HDA to 9-ODA in
worker honey bees. Further, the differential synthesis process is influenced by the gene
expression of various cytochromes. QMPs impose differential influence on various
developmental, functional, and behavioural regulations on nest mates, which include
retinue behaviour, suppression of the development of worker honey bee ovaries, wax
secretion, drone attraction, swarming, queen dominance regulation, general regulation,
mating, and reproduction, juvenile hormone secretion in workers, foraging behaviour
and the different submissive response of workers in the presence of the queen.
Retinue Behaviour of Worker Honey Bees
Page: 163-174 (12)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815079128112010009
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Different queen pheromones attract colonial workers who respond by
forming a surrounding group around the stationary queen. This specific behaviour is
considered retinue behaviour. Workers lick, groom, and antennate the queen to get
pheromones which influence workers' behaviour, physiology, development, hormones,
reproduction, etc. Various pheromonal glands like the Mandibular gland components,
the Tergal gland, Dufour's gland, etc., influence the retinue. Primary pheromones
which influence the retinue process include (E)-9-oxo-2-decanoic acid(9-ODA), methyl
4-hydroxybenzoate(HOB), (R)-and (S)-(E)-9-hydroxy-2-decanoic acid(9-HDA), 4-
hydroxy3-methoxyphenylethanol (HVA), 10-hydroxy-decanoic acid (10-HDAA)
and10-hydroxy-2 (E)-decanoic acid (10-HDA), methyl oleate, coniferyl alcohol,
palmityl alcohol, and linolenic acid. Furthermore, queen ester includes palmitates,
oleates, ethyl stearate, ethyl, and methyl palmitoleate. Additionally, specific volatiles
influence swarming, drone attraction, and general organization of the colony. This
chapter comprehensively describes the retinue behaviour of workers, responsible
elements, and the significance of retinue.
Influence of Queen Pheromones on Worker Ovarian PCD in Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae)
Page: 175-196 (22)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815079128112010010
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Queen honey bee imposes her reproductive dominance through the secretion
of volatile chemicals, especially from the mandibular gland, tergal and defour glands.
Further, queen pheromones and different larval diets; aggregately control the
differential expression of specific genetic elements. The altered transcriptomic activity
resulted in Programmed Cell Death (PCD) in the ovaries of worker honey bees.
Furthermore, after the hatching of workers, the specific degenerative process remains
continuous for a brief period, destroying numerous ovarioles. As a result, few
facultative functional ovarioles remain active in worker honey bees' ovaries. Available
literature also witnesses the formation of pseudo-queens or egg-laying workers.
This chapter provides insight into responsible queen pheromones for induction of
programmed cell death in worker honey bees' ovaries. The next chapter focuses on the
genetic elements for queen pheromones's-induced ovarian PCD in workers.
Genetic Influence on Ovarian Development Plasticity In Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae)
Page: 197-210 (14)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815079128112010011
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Variant genomic expression and proteomics ultimately induce plasticity in
honey bees' ovarian development. The expression of the same genomic content in
female castes is influenced by; the compositional difference between royal jelly and
workers jelly, queen pheromones, hormones associated with metamorphosis and
environmental cues. Various concerned genetic elements with diversified
transcriptomics include Kr-h1,hsp, Cut-like protein gene, Ftz-F1, anti-apoptotic buffy,
Incov, oat, Apaf-1, ark, Incov2, MAPK, FoxO, mTOR, Hedgehog, TGF-β, Wnt, Hippo,
Toll, Imd, H3K4me3, H3K27ac, H3K36me3, etc. The specific genetic elements are
responsible for the structural and functional activation of the queen ovary. In workers,
the same genetic factors act as the primary criterion for induction Programme Cell
Death (PCD). This chapter attributes to enlisting concerned genetic elements which
serve as an inducer for divergent ovarian development. The next chapter describes the
details of PCD in workers' ovaries.
Drone Development, Biology, and And Interaction With The Queen in Apis mellifera
Page: 211-231 (21)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815079128112010012
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Drone honey bees develop from haploid/unfertilized/diploid eggs produced
by parthenogenesis or from fertilized eggs having identical sex alleles, formed after
sexual reproduction, with more probability when the queen mates with drones of the
same hives. Nurse bees generally remove diploid drone larvae due to cannibalism
hormones secreted by developing larvae. Further, the development of drones is
influenced by colony temperature, hence can be completed within 24-25 days. Queen
attracts drone honey bees toward herself with pheromones9-ODA,9-HAD and 10
HDA. Drone number depends upon the colony's environmental conditions and
available food to the colony. The specific chapter provides deep insight into the
development of drones, the biology of drones, the reproductive system and the mating
behaviour of particular castes.
Mating and Reproduction in Queen Honey Bee
Page: 232-246 (15)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815079128112010013
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Queen honey bee is polyandrous, per her mating tendency with multiple drones of other colonies in the drone congregation area. Post-hatching, the virgin queen takes a few short flights near the colony, and eventually, within two weeks of her posthatching, she takes 1-2 nuptial flights for mating. During mating, the queen receives ample sperm storage for her entire life. Virgin queen attracts drones through her characteristic pheromonal profiling, especially by mandibular gland pheromones. After mating, drones die, and the queen returns to the native hive to perpetuate the species. The queen can regulate the fertilization of eggs; therefore, a colony is the composite aggregation of bees of different patriline inheritance. Queens can lay two types of eggs, fertilized and unfertilized, which tend to develop into female and male castes. Therefore, the queen can potentially regulate the overall strength of the colony and caste ratio to direct the colony in a specific direction.
Swarming and Queen Honey Bee
Page: 247-273 (27)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815079128112010014
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
The reproductive swarms usually include queens, young worker bees and
drones, leaving the native hive to explore the pre-selected site and construct a hive
there. Various factors which accelerate swarming events include congestion in the
colony, reduced queen pheromones, limited available food resource, different
ecological conditions, genetic possession of the colony, etc. Swarming is a significant
event for a honey bee colony but drastically affects beekeeping. Therefore apiarists
generally take specific measures to control packing events, including proper
management of the colony, clipping of queen honey bee's wings, destruction of a queen
cell, maintenance of adequate strength of the colony, re-queening of the colony and use
of swarm resistance honey bees.
Requeen Process and Importance
Page: 274-288 (15)
Author: Lovleen Marwaha
DOI: 10.2174/9789815079128112010015
PDF Price: $15
Abstract
Polyandrous queen honey bee plays a crucial role in regulating colony
strength, sex ratio, colony productivity, social communication, pheromonal regulation
of colonial events and developmental controls. On the other hand, a honey bee colony
without a queen fails to perpetuate. Therefore for profitable beekeeping, apiarists try to
inoculate a colony with a queen with considerable fertility and strong pheromonal
profiling. The present chapter highlights the importance of requeening and its method .
Introduction
The queen honey bee is known to mate with multiple drones, and can produce over a million offspring in its lifetime. Its presence is vital to the growth and survival of a beehive. This reference book is a detailed guide to queen honey bees. The book starts by providing deep insights into the fascinating biology of the queen honey bees, their morphometric features, developmental synchronicity, genetics, hormones, pheromones, colonial organization and swarming. Further, the book describes artificial queen rearing techniques that facilitate healthy bee colony growth and increase apiculture productivity. The book equips readers with all the knowledge they need to know about queen bee development, their role in the colony and improving the health of their colony. Key Features - 14 reader-friendly chapters that comprehensively present information about queen honey bees - Comprehensive coverage about queen bee biology, including their physical morphology, genetics, proteomics, development and behavior (including worker and drone interactions) - Information about the role of queen bees in colonial organization and life-cycle events - Practical information that helps to improve bee colony health for research and apiculture (disease mechanisms and control, artificial breeding) The book is an essential primary reference on queen honey bees for biology and entomology students, academicians and researchers at all educational levels. Apiculturists, bee keeping enthusiasts, and general readers interested in honey bees can also benefit from the breadth of information presented.