Generic placeholder image

Current Alzheimer Research

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1567-2050
ISSN (Online): 1875-5828

Review Article

Visual Event-Related Potentials in Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer’s Disease: A Literature Review

Author(s): Cassandra Morrison*, Sheida Rabipour, Vanessa Taler, Christine Sheppard and Frank Knoefel

Volume 16, Issue 1, 2019

Page: [67 - 89] Pages: 23

DOI: 10.2174/1567205015666181022101036

Price: $65

Abstract

Background: Cognitive deficits are correlated with increasing age and become more pronounced for people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia caused by Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Conventional methods to diagnose cognitive decline (i.e., neuropsychological testing and clinical judgment) can lead to false positives. Tools such as electroencephalography (EEG) offer more refined, objective measures that index electrophysiological changes associated with healthy aging, MCI, and AD.

Objective: We sought to review the EEG literature to determine whether visual event-related potentials (ERPs) can distinguish between healthy aging, MCI, and AD.

Method: We searched Medline and PyscInfo for articles published between January 2005 and April 2018. Articles were considered for review if they included participants aged 60+ who were healthy older adults or people with MCI and AD, and examined at least one visually elicited ERP component.

Results: Our search revealed 880 records, of which 34 satisfied the inclusion criteria. All studies compared cognitive function between at least two of the three groups (healthy older adults, MCI, and AD). The most consistent findings related to the P100 and the P3b; while the P100 showed no differences between groups, the P3b showed declines in amplitude in MCI and AD.

Conclusion: Visually elicited ERPs can offer insight into the cognitive processes that decline in MCI and AD. The P3b may be useful in identifying older adults who may develop MCI and AD, and more research should examine the sensitivity and specificity of this component when diagnosing MCI and AD.

Keywords: Visual event-related potentials, Alzheimer’s disease, Mild cognitive impairment, Electroencephalography, P300, N200.

« Previous
[1]
Taler V, Phillips NA. Language performance in Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairment: a comparative review. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 30(5): 501-56. (2008).
[2]
Petersen RC, Smith GE, Waring SC, Ivnik RJ, Tangalos EG, Kokmen E. Mild cognitive impairment: clinical characterization and outcome. Arch Neurol 56(3): 303-8. (1999).
[3]
Papaliagkas VT, Kimiskidis VK, Tsolaki MN, Anogianakis G. Cognitive event-related potentials: longitudinal changes in mild cognitive impairment. Clin Neurophysiol 122(7): 1322-6. (2011).
[4]
Alzheimer’s Disease & Dementia [Internet]. 2016 [cited 2016 Jun 5]. Available from: http://www.alz.org/alzheimers_disease_ what_ is_alzheimers.asp
[5]
Golob EJ, Miranda GG, Johnson JK, Starr A. Sensory cortical interactions in aging, mild cognitive impairment, and Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol Aging 22(5): 755-63. (2001).
[6]
Gauthier S, Reisberg B, Zaudig M, Petersen RC, Ritchie K, Broich K, et al. Mild cognitive impairment. The Lancet 367(9518): 1262-70. (2006).
[7]
Werner P, Korczyn AD. Mild cognitive impairment: conceptual, assessment, ethical, and social issues. Clin Interven Aging 3(3): 413. (2008).
[8]
Bennys K, Rondouin G, Benattar E, Gabelle A, Touchon J. Can event-related potential predict the progression of mild cognitive impairment? J Clin Neurophysiol 28(6): 625-32. (2011).
[9]
Petersen RC. Mild cognitive impairment as a diagnostic entity. J Intern Med 256(3): 183-94. (2004).
[10]
Morrison C, Rabipour S, Knoefel F, Sheppard C, Taler V. Auditory event-related potentials in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease: a literature review. Curr Alzheimer Res 15(8): 702-15. (2018).
[11]
Larner AJ. Screening utility of the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA): in place of-or as well as-the MMSE? Intern Psychoger 24(3): 391-6. (2012).
[12]
Luck S. An introduction to the event-related potential technique. (2014).
[13]
Mertens R, Polich J. P300 from a single-stimulus paradigm: passive versus active tasks and stimulus modality Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol/Evoked Pot Sec 104(6): 488-97 (1997).
[14]
Johnstone SJ, Barry RJ, Anderson JW, Coyle SF. Age-related changes in child and adolescent event-related potential component morphology, amplitude and latency to standard and target stimuli in an auditory oddball task. Intern J Psychophysiol 24(3): 223-38. (1996).
[15]
Irimajiri R, Michalewski HJ, Golob EJ, Starr A. Cholinesterase inhibitors affect brain potentials in amnestic mild cognitive impairment. Brain Res 1145: 108-16. (2007).
[16]
Burns NR, Nettelbeck T, Cooper CJ. Event-related potential correlates of some human cognitive ability constructs. Person Ind Diff 29(1): 157-68. (2000).
[17]
Curtis WJ, Cicchetti D. Affective facial expression processing in young children who have experienced maltreatment during the first year of life: an event-related potential study. Develop Psychopathol 23(2): 373-95. (2011).
[18]
Heinze HJ, Mangun GR. Electrophysiological signs of sustained and transient attention to spatial locations. Neuropsychologia 33(7): 889-908. (1995).
[19]
Hillyard SA, Münte TF. Selective attention to color and location: an analysis with event-related brain potentials. Percept Psychophys 36(2): 185-98. (1984).
[20]
Cobb WA, Dawson GD. The latency and form in man of the occipital potentials evoked by bright flashes. J Physiol 152(1): 108-21. (1960).
[21]
Spehlmann R. The averaged electrical responses to diffuse and to patterned light in the human. Electroencephal Clin Neurophysiol 19(6): 560-9. (1965).
[22]
Jiang Y, Luo YJ, Parasuraman R. Neural correlates of age-related reduction in visual motion priming. Aging Neuropsychol D Cogn 16(2): 164-82. (2009).
[23]
Omoto S, Kuroiwa Y, Otsuka S, Baba Y, Wang C, Li M, et al. P1 and P2 components of human visual evoked potentials are modulated by depth perception of 3-dimensional images. Clin Neurophysiol 121(3): 386-91. (2010).
[24]
Heinze HJ, Mangun GR, Burchert W, Hinrichs H, Scholz M, Münte TF, et al. Combined spatial and temporal imaging of brain activity during visual selective attention in humans. Nature 372(6506): 543-6. (1994).
[25]
Wascher E, Hoffmann S, Sänger J, Grosjean M. Visuo-spatial processing and the N1 component of the ERP. Psychophysiology 46(6): 1270-7. (2009).
[26]
Lijffijt M, Lane SD, Meier SL, Boutros NN, Burroughs S, Steinberg JL, et al. P50, N100, and P200 sensory gating: relationships with behavioral inhibition, attention, and working memory. Psychophysiology 46(5): 1059-68. (2009).
[27]
McEvoy LK, Pellouchoud E, Smith ME, Gevins A. Neurophysiological signals of working memory in normal aging. Cogn Brain Res 11(3): 363-76. (2001).
[28]
Liddell BJ, Paul RH, Arns M, Gordon N, Kukla M, Rowe D, et al. Rates of decline distinguish Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairment relative to normal aging: integrating cognition and brain function. J Integr Neurosci 6(01): 141-74. (2007).
[29]
Beuzeron-Mangina H, Mangina CA. Excessive compensatory recruitment as a compulsory neurophysiological mechanism in Very Early Alzheimer’s Disease as compared to Mild Vascular Dementia and to age-matched normal controls. Intern J Psychophysiol 73(2): 164-9. (2009).
[30]
Parra M, Ascencio L, Urquina H, Manes F, Ibanez A. P300 and neuropsychological assessment in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer dementia. Front Neurol 3: 172. (2012).
[31]
Spironelli C, Bergamaschi S, Mondini S, Villani D, Angrilli A. Functional plasticity in Alzheimer’s disease: Effect of cognitive training on language-related ERP components. Neuropsychologia 51(8): 1638-48. (2013).
[32]
Patel SH, Azzam PN. Characterization of N200 and P300: selected studies of the event-related potential. Interm J Med Sci 2(4): 147. (2005).
[33]
Fernandez R, Duffy CJ. Early Alzheimer’s disease blocks responses to accelerating self-movement. Neurobiol Aging 33(11): 2551-60. (2012).
[34]
Haarmeier T, Thier P. An electrophysiological correlate of visual motion awareness in man. J Cogn Neurosci 10(4): 464-71. (1998).
[35]
Cespón J, Galdo-Álvarez S, Díaz F. Electrophysiological correlates of amnestic mild cognitive impairment in a Simon task. PLoS One 8(12): e81506. (2013).
[36]
Cespón J, Galdo-Álvarez S, Díaz F. Inhibition deficit in the spatial tendency of the response in multiple-domain amnestic mild cognitive impairment. An event-related potential study. Front Aging Neurosci 7: 68. (2015).
[37]
Näätänen R, Jacobsen T, Winkler I. Memory-based or afferent processes in mismatch negativity (MMN): a review of the evidence. Psychophysiology 42(1): 25-32. (2005).
[38]
Näätänen R, Gaillard AW, Mäntysalo S. Early selective-attention effect on evoked potential reinterpreted. Acta Psychologica 42(4): 313-29. (1978).
[39]
Polich J. Updating P300: an integrative theory of P3a and P3b. Clin Neurophysiol 118(10): 2128-48. (2007).
[40]
Blau VC, Maurer U, Tottenham N, McCandliss BD. The face-specific N170 component is modulated by emotional facial expression. Behav Brain Funct 3(1): 7. (2007).
[41]
Eimer M. The face specific N170 component reflects late stages in the structural encoding of faces. Neuroreport 11(10): 2319-24. (2000).
[42]
Schweinberger SR, Huddy V, Burton AM. N250r: a face-selective brain response to stimulus repetitions. Neuroreport 15(9): 1501-5. (2004).
[43]
Schweinberger SR, Pfütze EM, Sommer W. Repetition priming and associative priming of face recognition: evidence from event-related potentials. J Exp Psychol Learning, Memory, Cognition 21(3): 722. (1995).
[44]
Missonnier P, Leonards U, Gold G, Palix J, Ibáñez V, Giannakopoulos P. A new electrophysiological index for working memory load in humans. Neuroreport 14(11): 1451-5. (2003).
[45]
Vogel EK, Machizawa MG. Neural activity predicts individual differences in visual working memory capacity. Nature 428(6984): 748. (2004).
[46]
Bagattini C, Mazza V, Panizza L, Ferrari C, Bonomini C, Brignani D. Neural dynamics of multiple object processing in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease: future early diagnostic biomarkers? J Alzheimers Dis 59(2): 643-54. (2017).
[47]
Drew T, Vogel EK. Neural measures of individual differences in selecting and tracking multiple moving objects. J Neurosci 28(16): 4183-91. (2008).
[48]
Ikkai A, McCollough AW, Vogel EK. Contralateral delay activity provides a neural measure of the number of representations in visual working memory. J Neurophysiol 103(4): 1963-8. (2010).
[49]
Bruce SE, Werner KB, Preston BF, Baker LM. Improvements in concentration, working memory and sustained attention following consumption of a natural citicoline-caffeine beverage. Intern J Food Sci Nutr 65(8): 1003-7. (2014).
[50]
Fernández G, Effern A, Grunwald T, Pezer N, Lehnertz K, Dümpelmann M, et al. Real-time tracking of memory formation in the human rhinal cortex and hippocampus. Science 285(5433): 1582-5. (1999).
[51]
O’Connell RG, Balsters JH, Kilcullen SM, Campbell W, Bokde AW, Lai R, et al. A simultaneous ERP/fMRI investigation of the P300 aging effect. Neurobiol Aging 33(10): 2448-61. (2012).
[52]
Gazzaley A, Clapp W, Kelley J, McEvoy K, Knight RT, D’Esposito M. Age-related top-down suppression deficit in the early stages of cortical visual memory processing. Proc Natl Acad Sci 105(35): 13122-6. (2008).
[53]
Finnigan S, O’Connell RG, Cummins TD, Broughton M, Robertson IH. ERP measures indicate both attention and working memory encoding decrements in aging. Psychophysiology 48(5): 601-11. (2011).
[54]
Yamasaki T, Goto Y, Ohyagi Y, Monji A, Munetsuna S, Minohara M, et al. Selective impairment of optic flow perception in amnestic mild cognitive impairment: evidence from event-related potentials. J Alzheimers Dis 28(3): 695-708. (2012).
[55]
Fogelson N, Shah M, Bonnet-Brilhault F, Knight RT. Electrophysiological evidence for aging effects on local contextual processing. Cortex 46(4): 498-506. (2010).
[56]
Saliasi E, Geerligs L, Lorist MM, Maurits NM. The relationship between P3 amplitude and working memory performance differs in young and older adults. PLoS One 8(5): e63701. (2013).
[57]
Tales A, Butler S. Visual mismatch negativity highlights abnormal preattentive visual processing in Alzheimer’s disease. Neuroreport 17(9): 887-90. (2006).
[58]
Gajewski PD, Falkenstein M. Age-related effects on ERP and oscillatory EEG-dynamics in a 2-back task. J Psychophysiol 28(3): 162. (2014).
[59]
Fernandez R, Monacelli A, Duffy CJ. Visual motion event related potentials distinguish aging and Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimers Dis 36(1): 177-83. (2013).
[60]
Lorenzo-López L, Amenedo E, Pascual-Marqui RD, Cadaveira F. Neural correlates of age-related visual search decline: a combined ERP and sLORETA study. Neuroimage 41(2): 511-24. (2008).
[61]
Fujiyama H, Garry MI, Martin FH, Summers JJ. An ERP study of age-related differences in the central cost of interlimb coordination. Psychophysiology 47(3): 501-11. (2010).
[62]
Daffner KR, Chong H, Sun X, Tarbi EC, Riis JL, McGinnis SM, et al. Mechanisms underlying age-and performance-related differences in working memory. J Cogn Neurosci 23(6): 1298-314. (2011).
[63]
Vallesi A. Targets and non-targets in the aging brain: a go/nogo event-related potential study. Neurosci Lett 487(3): 313-37. (2011).
[64]
Salthouse TA. The processing-speed theory of adult age differences in cognition. Psychol Rev 103(3): 403. (1996).
[65]
Wild-Wall N, Falkenstein M, Gajewski PD. Age-related differences in working memory performance in a 2-back task. Front Psychol 2: 186. (2011).
[66]
Hogan MJ, Kenney JP, Roche RA, Keane MA, Moore JL, Kaiser J, et al. Behavioural and electrophysiological effects of visual paired associate context manipulations during encoding and recognition in younger adults, older adults and older cognitively declined adults. Exp Brain Res 216(4): 621-33. (2012).
[67]
Davis SW, Dennis NA, Daselaar SM, Fleck MS, Cabeza R. Que PASA? The posterior-anterior shift in aging. Cerebral Cortex 18(5): 1201-19. (2007).
[68]
de Fockert JW, Ramchurn A, Van Velzen J, Bergström Z, Bunce D. Behavioral and ERP evidence of greater distractor processing in old age. Brain Res 1282: 67-73. (2009).
[69]
Kutas M, Iragui V. The N400 in a semantic categorization task across 6 decades. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 108(5): 456-71. (1998).
[70]
Kemmotsu N, Girard HM, Kucukboyaci NE, McEvoy LK, Hagler DJ, Dale AM, et al. Age-related changes in the neurophysiology of language in adults: relationship to regional cortical thinning and white matter microstructure. J Neurosci 32(35): 12204-13. (2012).
[71]
Sander MC, Werkle-Bergner M, Lindenberger U. Contralateral delay activity reveals life-span age differences in top-down modulation of working memory contents. Cereb Cortex 21(12): 2809-19. (2011).
[72]
Newsome RN, Pun C, Smith VM, Ferber S, Barense MD. Neural correlates of cognitive decline in older adults at-risk for developing MCI: evidence from the CDA and P300. Cogn Neurosci 4(3-4): 152-62. (2013).
[73]
Park DC, Lautenschlager G, Hedden T, Davidson NS, Smith AD, Smith PK. Models of visuospatial and verbal memory across the adult life span. Psychol Aging 17(2): 299. (2002).
[74]
Pedroso RV, Fraga FJ, Corazza DI, Andreatto CA, Coelho FG, Costa JL, et al. P300 latency and amplitude in Alzheimer’s disease: a systematic review. Braz J Otorhinolaryngol 78(4): 126-32. (2012).
[75]
Olichney JM, Hillert DG. Clinical applications of cognitive event-related potentials in Alzheimer’s disease. Phys Med Rehabil Clin North America 15(1): 205-33. (2004).
[76]
Howe AS. Meta-analysis of the endogenous N200 latency event-related potential subcomponent in patients with Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairment. Clin Neurophysiol 125(6): 1145-51. (2014).
[77]
Missonnier P, Deiber MP, Gold G, Herrmann FR, Millet P, Michon A, et al. Working memory load-related electroencephalographic parameters can differentiate progressive from stable mild cognitive impairment. Neuroscience 150(2): 346-56. (2007).
[78]
Schefter M, Werheid K, Almkvist O, Lönnqvist-Akenine U, Kathmann N, Winblad B. Recognition memory for emotional faces in amnestic mild cognitive impairment: an event-related potential study. Aging Neuropsychol Cogn 20(1): 49-79. (2013).
[79]
Deiber MP, Meziane HB, Hasler R, Rodriguez C, Toma S, Ackermann M, et al. Attention and working memory-related EEG markers of subtle cognitive deterioration in healthy elderly individuals. J Alzheimers Dis 47(2): 335-49. (2015).
[80]
Li BY, Tang HD, Chen SD. Retrieval deficiency in brain activity of working memory in amnesic mild cognitive impairment patients: a brain event-related potentials study. Front Aging Neurosci 8: 54. (2016).
[81]
Stothart G, Kazanina N, Näätänen R, Haworth J, Tales A. Early visual evoked potentials and mismatch negativity in Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairment. J Alzheimers Dis 44(2): 397-408. (2015).
[82]
Fernandez R, Kavcic V, Duffy CJ. Neurophysiologic analyses of low-and high-level visual processing in Alzheimer disease. Neurology 68(24): 2066-76. (2007).
[83]
Cheng PJ, Pai MC. Dissociation between recognition of familiar scenes and of faces in patients with very mild Alzheimer disease: an event-related potential study. Clin Neurophysiol 121(9): 1519-25. (2010).
[84]
Kubová Z, Kremláček J, Vališ M, Langrová J, Szanyi J, Vít F, et al. Visual evoked potentials to pattern, motion and cognitive stimuli in Alzheimer’s disease. Documenta Ophthalmologica 121(1): 37-49. (2010).
[85]
Grieder M, Crinelli RM, Jann K, Federspiel A, Wirth M, Koenig T, et al. Correlation between topographic N400 anomalies and reduced cerebral blood flow in the anterior temporal lobes of patients with dementia. J Alzheimers Dis 36(4): 711-31. (2013).
[86]
Saavedra C, Iglesias J, Olivares EI. Event-related potentials elicited by face identity processing in elderly adults with cognitive impairment. Exp Aging Res 38(2): 220-45. (2012).
[87]
Olichney JM, Iragui VJ, Salmon DP, Riggins BR, Morris SK, Kutas M. Absent event-related potential (ERP) word repetition effects in mild Alzheimer’s disease. Clin Neurophysiol 117(6): 1319-30. (2006).
[88]
Lopez Zunini RA, Knoefel F, Lord C, Dzuali F, Breau M, Sweet L, et al. Event-related potentials elicited during working memory are altered in mild cognitive impairment. Intern J Psychophysiol 109: 1-8. (2016).
[89]
Fix ST, Arruda JE, Andrasik F, Beach J, Groom K. Using visual evoked potentials for the early detection of amnestic mild cognitive impairment: a pilot investigation. Intern J Geriatr Psychiatry 30(1): 72-9. (2015).
[90]
Kurita A, Murakami M, Takagi S, Matsushima M, Suzuki M. Visual hallucinations and altered visual information processing in Parkinson disease and dementia with Lewy bodies. Mov Disord 25(2): 167-71. (2010).
[91]
Wang P, Zhang X, Liu Y, Liu S, Zhou B, Zhang Z, et al. Perceptual and response interference in Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairment. Clin Neurophysiol 124(12): 2389-96. (2013).
[92]
Cespón J, Galdo-Alvarez S, Pereiro AX, Diaz F. Differences between mild cognitive impairment subtypes as indicated by event-related potential correlates of cognitive and motor processes in a Simon task. J Alzheimers Dis 43(2): 631-47. (2015).
[93]
Mudar RA, Chiang HS, Eroh J, Nguyen LT, Maguire MJ, Spence JS, et al. The effects of amnestic mild cognitive impairment on Go/NoGo semantic categorization task performance and event-related potentials. J Alzheimers Dis 50(2): 577-90. (2016).
[94]
Tales A, Haworth J, Wilcock G, Newton P, Butler S. Visual mismatch negativity highlights abnormal pre-attentive visual processing in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychologia 46(5): 1224-32. (2008).
[95]
Asaumi Y, Morita K, Nakashima Y, Muraoka A, Uchimura N. Evaluation of P300 components for emotion loaded visual event related potential in elderly subjects, including those with dementia. Psychiat Clin Neurosci 68(7): 558-67. (2014).
[96]
Saavedra C, Olivares EI, Iglesias J. Cognitive decline effects at an early stage: evidence from N170 and VPP. Neurosci Lett 518(2): 149-53. (2012).
[97]
Wolk DA, Schacter DL, Berman AR, Holcomb PJ, Daffner KR, Budson AE. Patients with mild Alzheimer’s disease attribute conceptual fluency to prior experience. Neuropsychologia 43(11): 1662-72. (2005).
[98]
Taler V, Klepousniotou E, Phillips NA. Comprehension of lexical ambiguity in healthy aging, mild cognitive impairment, and mild Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychologia 47(5): 1332-43. (2009).
[99]
Olivares EI, Iglesias J, Rodríguez-Holguín S. Long-latency ERPs and recognition of facial identity. J Cogn Neurosci 15(1): 136-51. (2003).
[100]
Missonnier P, Gold G, Fazio-Costa L, Michel JP, Mulligan R, Michon A, et al. Early event-related potential changes during working memory activation predict rapid decline in mild cognitive impairment. J Gerontol Series A Biol Sci Med Sci 60(5): 660-6. (2005).
[101]
Cancelli I, Cadore IP, Merlino G, Valentinis L, Moratti U, Bergonzi P, et al. Sensory gating deficit assessed by P50/Pb middle latency event related potential in Alzheimer’s disease. J Clin Neurophysiol 23(5): 421-5. (2006).
[102]
Chang YS, Chen HL, Hsu CY, Tang SH, Liu CK. Parallel improvement of cognitive functions and p300 latency following donepezil treatment in patients with alzheimer’s disease: a case-control study. J Clin Neurophysiol 31(1): 81-5. (2014).
[103]
Hammond EJ, Meador KJ, Aung-Din R, Wilder BJ. Cholinergic modulation of human P3 event related potentials. Neurology 37(2): 346-50. (1987).
[104]
Dierks T, Frölich L, Ihl R, Maurer K. Event-related potentials and psychopharmacology. Pharmacopsychiatry 27(02): 72-4. (1994).
[105]
Vaitkevičius A, Kaubrys G, Audronytė E. Distinctive effect of donepezil treatment on P300 and N200 subcomponents of auditory event-related evoked potentials in Alzheimer disease patients. Med Sci Monit 21: 1920. (2015).
[106]
Goodin DS. Event-Related Potentials. In: Michael J Aminoff, editor Electrodiagnosis in Clinical Neurology Fifth Edit Elsevier Inc. 1999.; pp. 609-26.
[107]
Wilkinson D, Halligan P. The relevance of behavioural measures for functional-imaging studies of cognition. Nat Rev Neurosci 5(1): 67. (2004).
[108]
Folstein JR, Van Petten C. Influence of cognitive control and mismatch on the N2 component of the ERP: a review. Psychophysiology 45(1): 152-70. (2008).
[109]
Ashford JW, Coburn KL, Rose TL, Bayley PJ. P300 energy loss in aging and Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimers Dis 26(s3): 229-38. (2011).
[110]
Kok A. On the utility of P3 amplitude as a measure of processing capacity. Psychophysiology 38(3): 557-77. (2001).

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy