Generic placeholder image

Current Medicinal Chemistry

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 0929-8673
ISSN (Online): 1875-533X

Review Article

Biomarkers of Atrial Fibrillation in Hypertension

Author(s): Costas Tsioufis*, Dimitris Konstantinidis, Ilias Nikolakopoulos, Evi Vemmou, Theodoros Kalos, Georgios Georgiopoulos, Nikolaos Vogiatzakis, Aris Ifantis, Konstantinou Konstantinou, Vasiliki Gennimata and Dimitrios Tousoulis

Volume 26, Issue 5, 2019

Page: [888 - 897] Pages: 10

DOI: 10.2174/0929867324666171006155516

Price: $65

Abstract

Background: Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most frequently encountered cardiac arrhythmia globally and substantially increases the risk for thromboembolic disease. Albeit, 20% of all cases of AF remain undiagnosed. On the other hand, hypertension amplifies the risk for both AF occurrences through hemodynamic and non-hemodynamic mechanisms and cerebrovascular ischemia. Under this prism, prompt diagnosis of undetected AF in hypertensive patients is of pivotal importance.

Method: We conducted a review of the literature for studies with biomarkers that could be used in AF diagnosis as well as in predicting the transition of paroxysmal AF to sustained AF, especially in hypertensive patients.

Results: Potential biomarkers for AF can be broadly categorized into electrophysiological, morphological and molecular markers that reflect the underlying mechanisms of adverse atrial remodeling. We focused on P-wave duration and dispersion as electrophysiological markers, and left atrial (LA) and LA appendage size, atrial fibrosis, left ventricular hypertrophy and aortic stiffness as structural biomarkers, respectively. The heterogeneous group of molecular biomarkers of AF encompasses products of the neurohormonal cascade, including NT-pro BNP, BNP, MR-pro ANP, polymorphisms of the ACE and convertases such as corin and furin. In addition, soluble biomarkers of inflammation (i.e. CRP, IL-6) and fibrosis (i.e. TGF-1 and matrix metalloproteinases) were assessed for predicting AF.

Conclusion: The reviewed individual biomarkers might be a valuable addition to current diagnostic tools but the ideal candidate is expected to combine multiple indices of atrial remodeling in order to effectively detect both AF and adverse characteristics of high risk patients with hypertension.

Keywords: Atrial fibrillation, hypertension, biomarkers, atrial remodeling, stroke, hypertensive patients.

[1]
Lloyd-Jones, D.M.; Wang, T.J.; Leip, E.P.; Larson, M.G.; Levy, D.; Vasan, R.S.; D’Agostino, R.B.; Massaro, J.M.; Beiser, A.; Wolf, P.A.; Benjamin, E.J. Lifetime risk for development of atrial fibrillation: The Framingham heart study. Circulation, 2004, 110(9), 1042-1046.
[2]
Miyasaka, Y.; Barnes, M.E.; Gersh, B.J.; Cha, S.S.; Bailey, K.R.; Abhayaratna, W.P.; Seward, J.B.; Tsang, T.S. Secular trends in incidence of atrial fibrillation in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1980 to 2000, and implications on the projections for future prevalence. Circulation, 2006, 114(2), 119-125.
[3]
Krijthe, B.P.; Kunst, A.; Benjamin, E.J.; Lip, G.Y.H.; Franco, O.H.; Hofman, A.; Witteman, J.C.; Stricker, B.H.; Heeringa, J. Projections on the number of individuals with atrial fibrillation in the European Union, from 2000 to 2060. Eur. Heart J., 2013, 34(35), 2746-2751.
[4]
Dulli, D.A.; Stanko, H.; Levine, R.L. Atrial fibrillation is associated with severe acute ischemic stroke. Neuroepidemiology, 2003, 22(2), 118-123.
[5]
Lin, H-J.; Wolf, P.A.; Kelly-Hayes, M.; Beiser, A.S.; Kase, C.S.; Benjamin, E.J.; D’Agostino, R.B. Stroke severity in atrial fibrillation. The Framingham Study. Stroke, 1996, 27(10), 1760-1764.
[6]
Clua-Espuny, J.L.; Lechuga-Duran, I.; Bosch-Princep, R.; Roso-Llorach, A.; Panisello-Tafalla, A.; Lucas-Noll, J.; López-Pablo, C.; Queralt-Tomas, L.; Giménez-Garcia, E.; González-Rojas, N.; Gallofré López, M. Prevalence of undiagnosed atrial fibrillation and of that not being treated with anticoagulant drugs: the AFABE study. Rev. Esp. Cardiol. (Engl. Ed.), 2013, 66(7), 545-552.
[7]
Krahn, A.D.; Manfreda, J.; Tate, R.B.; Mathewson, F.A.; Cuddy, T.E. The natural history of atrial fibrillation: incidence, risk factors, and prognosis in the Manitoba Follow-Up Study. Am. J. Med., 1995, 98(5), 476-484.
[8]
Kannel, W.B.; Wolf, P.A.; Benjamin, E.J.; Levy, D. Prevalence, incidence, prognosis, and predisposing conditions for atrial fibrillation: population-based estimates. Am. J. Cardiol., 1998, 82(8A), 2N-9N.
[9]
Reiffel, J.A. Is arterial stiffness a contributing factor to atrial fibrillation in patients with hypertension? A preliminary investigation. Am. J. Hypertens., 2004, 17(3), 213-216.
[10]
Biomarkers and surrogate endpoints: preferred definitions and conceptual framework. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther., 2001, 69(3), 89-95.
[11]
Martins, R.P.; Kaur, K.; Hwang, E.; Ramirez, R.J.; Willis, B.C.; Filgueiras-Rama, D.; Ennis, S.R.; Takemoto, Y.; Ponce-Balbuena, D.; Zarzoso, M.; O’Connell, R.P.; Musa, H.; Guerrero-Serna, G.; Avula, U.M.; Swartz, M.F.; Bhushal, S.; Deo, M.; Pandit, S.V.; Berenfeld, O.; Jalife, J. Dominant frequency increase rate predicts transition from paroxysmal to long-term persistent atrial fibrillation. Circulation, 2014, 129(14), 1472-1482.
[12]
Hijazi, Z.; Oldgren, J.; Andersson, U.; Connolly, S.J.; Ezekowitz, M.D.; Hohnloser, S.H.; Reilly, P.A.; Vinereanu, D.; Siegbahn, A.; Yusuf, S.; Wallentin, L. Cardiac biomarkers are associated with an increased risk of stroke and death in patients with atrial fibrillation: a Randomized Evaluation of Long-term Anticoagulation Therapy (RE-LY) substudy. Circulation, 2012, 125(13), 1605-1616.
[13]
Dilaveris, P.E.; Gialafos, E.J.; Sideris, S.K.; Theopistou, A.M.; Andrikopoulos, G.K.; Kyriakidis, M.; Gialafos, J.E.; Toutouzas, P.K. Simple electrocardiographic markers for the prediction of paroxysmal idiopathic atrial fibrillation. The Am. Heart J., 1998, 135(5), 733-738.
[14]
Dogan, U.; Dogan, E.A.; Tekinalp, M.; Tokgoz, O.S.; Aribas, A.; Akilli, H.; Ozdemir, K.; Gok, H.; Yuruten, B. P-wave dispersion for predicting paroxysmal atrial fibrillation in acute ischemic stroke. Int. J. Med. Sci., 2012, 9(1), 108-114.
[15]
Dagli, N.; Karaca, I.; Yavuzkir, M.; Balin, M.; Arslan, N. Are maximum P wave duration and P wave dispersion a marker of target organ damage in the hypertensive population? Clin. Res. Cardiol., 2008, 97(2), 98-104.
[16]
Yildirim, N.; Simsek, V.; Tulmac, M. Atrial electromechanical coupling interval and P-wave dispersion in patients with white coat hypertension. ClinExpHyperten., 2012, 34(5), 350-356.
[17]
Tsioufis, C.; Syrseloudis, D.; Hatziyianni, A. Relationships of CRP and P wave dispersion with atrial fibrillation in hypertensive subjects. Am. J. Hypertens., 2010, 23(2), 202-207.
[18]
Laukkanen, J.A.; Kurl, S.; Eränen, J.; Huttunen, M.; Salonen, J.T. Left atrium size and the risk of cardiovascular death in middle-aged men. Arch. Intern. Med., 2005, 165(15), 1788-1793.
[19]
Vaziri, S.M.; Larson, M.G.; Benjamin, E.J.; Levy, D. Echocardiographic predictors of nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation. The Framingham Heart Study. Circulation, 1994, 89(2), 724-730.
[20]
Phang, R.S.; Isserman, S.M.; Karia, D.; Pandian, N.G.; Homoud, M.K.; Link, M.S.; Estes, N.A., III; Wang, P.J. Echocardiographic evidence of left atrial abnormality in young patients with lone paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. The Am. J. Cardiol., 2004, 94(4), 511-513.
[21]
Vaziri, S.M.; Larson, M.G.; Lauer, M.S.; Benjamin, E.J.; Levy, D. Influence of blood pressure on left atrial size. The Framingham Heart Study. Hypertension, 1995, 25(6), 1155-1160.
[22]
Mitchell, G.F.; Vasan, R.S.; Keyes, M.J.; Parise, H.; Wang, T.J.; Larson, M.G.; D’Agostino, R.B., Sr; Kannel, W.B.; Levy, D.; Benjamin, E.J. Pulse pressure and risk of new-onset atrial fibrillation. JAMA, 2007, 297(7), 709-715.
[23]
Tsang, T.S.; Barnes, M.E.; Bailey, K.R.; Leibson, C.L.; Montgomery, S.C.; Takemoto, Y.; Diamond, P.M.; Marra, M.A.; Gersh, B.J.; Wiebers, D.O.; Petty, G.W.; Seward, J.B. Left atrial volume: important risk marker of incident atrial fibrillation in 1655 older men and women. Mayo Clin. Proc., 2001, 76(5), 467-475.
[24]
Toh, N.; Kanzaki, H.; Nakatani, S.; Ohara, T.; Kim, J.; Kusano, K.F.; Hashimura, K.; Ohe, T.; Ito, H.; Kitakaze, M. Left atrial volume combined with atrial pump function identifies hypertensive patients with a history of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. Hypertension, 2010, 55(5), 1150-1156.
[25]
Donal, E.; Yamada, H.; Leclercq, C.; Herpin, D. The left atrial appendage, a small, blind-ended structure: A review of its echocardiographic evaluation and its clinical role. Chest, 2005, 128(3), 1853-1862.
[26]
Dudley, S.C., Jr; Hoch, N.E.; McCann, L.A.; Honeycutt, C.; Diamandopoulos, L.; Fukai, T.; Harrison, D.G.; Dikalov, S.I.; Langberg, J. Atrial fibrillation increases production of superoxide by the left atrium and left atrial appendage: Role of the NADPH and xanthine oxidases. Circulation, 2005, 112(9), 1266-1273.
[27]
Dogan, A.; Kahraman, H.; Ozturk, M.; Avsar, A. P wave dispersion and left atrial appendage function for predicting recurrence after conversion of atrial fibrillation and relation of p wave dispersion to appendage function. Echocardiography, 2004, 21(6), 523-530.
[28]
Ma, X.; Zhang, X.; Guo, W. Factors to predict recurrence of atrial fibrillation in patients with hypertension. Clin. Cardiol., 2009, 32(5), 264-268.
[29]
Frustaci, A.; Chimenti, C.; Bellocci, F.; Morgante, E.; Russo, M.A.; Maseri, A. Histological substrate of atrial biopsies in patients with lone atrial fibrillation. Circulation, 1997, 96(4), 1180-1184.
[30]
Tan, T.C.; Koutsogeorgis, I.D.; Grapsa, J.; Papadopoulos, C.; Katsivas, A.; Nihoyannopoulos, P. Left atrium and the imaging of atrial fibrosis: catch it if you can! Eur. J. Clin. Invest., 2014, 44(9), 872-881.
[31]
Saraiva, R.M.; Demirkol, S.; Buakhamsri, A.; Greenberg, N.; Popović, Z.B.; Thomas, J.D.; Klein, A.L. Left atrial strain measured by two-dimensional speckle tracking represents a new tool to evaluate left atrial function. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr., 2010, 23(2), 172-180.
[32]
Mondillo, S.; Cameli, M.; Caputo, M.L.; Lisi, M.; Palmerini, E.; Padeletti, M.; Ballo, P. Early detection of left atrial strain abnormalities by speckle-tracking in hypertensive and diabetic patients with normal left atrial size. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr., 2011, 24(8), 898-908.
[33]
Oakes, R.S.; Badger, T.J.; Kholmovski, E.G.; Akoum, N.; Burgon, N.S.; Fish, E.N.; Blauer, J.J.; Rao, S.N.; DiBella, E.V.; Segerson, N.M.; Daccarett, M.; Windfelder, J.; McGann, C.J.; Parker, D.; MacLeod, R.S.; Marrouche, N.F. Detection and quantification of left atrial structural remodeling with delayed-enhancement magnetic resonance imaging in patients with atrial fibrillation. Circulation, 2009, 119(13), 1758-1767.
[34]
Mahnkopf, C.; Badger, T.J.; Burgon, N.S.; Daccarett, M.; Haslam, T.S.; Badger, C.T.; McGann, C.J.; Akoum, N.; Kholmovski, E.; Macleod, R.S.; Marrouche, N.F. Evaluation of the left atrial substrate in patients with lone atrial fibrillation using delayed-enhanced MRI: implications for disease progression and response to catheter ablation. Heart Rhythm, 2010, 7(10), 1475-1481.
[35]
McDowell, K.S.; Vadakkumpadan, F.; Blake, R.; Blauer, J.; Plank, G.; MacLeod, R.S.; Trayanova, N.A. Methodology for patient-specific modeling of atrial fibrosis as a substrate for atrial fibrillation. J. Electrocardiol., 2012, 45(6), 640-645.
[36]
Manolis, A.J.; Rosei, E.A.; Coca, A.; Cifkova, R.; Erdine, S.E.; Kjeldsen, S.; Lip, G.Y.; Narkiewicz, K.; Parati, G.; Redon, J.; Schmieder, R.; Tsioufis, C.; Mancia, G. Hypertension and atrial fibrillation: Diagnostic approach, prevention and treatment. Position paper of the working group ‘hypertension arrhythmias and thrombosis’ of the European society of hypertension. J. Hypertens., 2012, 30(2), 239-252.
[37]
Chinali, M.; de Simone, G.; Wachtell, K.; Gerdts, E.; Gardin, J.M.; Boman, K.; Nieminen, M.S.; Papademetriou, V.; Dahlöf, B.; Devereux, R.B. Left atrial systolic force in hypertensive patients with left ventricular hypertrophy: The LIFE study. J. Hypertens., 2008, 26(7), 1472-1476.
[38]
Verdecchia, P.; Dagenais, G.; Healey, J.; Gao, P.; Dans, A.L.; Chazova, I.; Binbrek, A.S.; Iacobellis, G.; Ferreira, R.; Holwerda, N.; Karatzas, N.; Keltai, M.; Mancia, G.; Sleight, P.; Teo, K.; Yusuf, S. Blood pressure and other determinants of new-onset atrial fibrillation in patients at high cardiovascular risk in the ongoing telmisartan alone and in combination with ramipril global endpoint trial/telmisartan randomized assessment study in ACE iNtolerant subjects with cardiovascular disease studies. J. Hypertens., 2012, 30(5), 1004-1014.
[39]
Gerdts, E.; Oikarinen, L.; Palmieri, V.; Otterstad, J.E.; Wachtell, K.; Boman, K.; Dahlöf, B.; Devereux, R.B. Correlates of left atrial size in hypertensive patients with left ventricular hypertrophy: The Losartan Intervention for Endpoint Reduction in Hypertension (LIFE) Study. Hypertension, 2002, 39(3), 739-743.
[40]
Boutouyrie, P.; Laurent, S.; Girerd, X.; Benetos, A.; Lacolley, P.; Abergel, E.; Safar, M. Common carotid artery stiffness and patterns of left ventricular hypertrophy in hypertensive patients. Hypertension, 1995, 25(4 Pt 1), 651-659.
[41]
Palmieri, V.; Bella, J.N.; Roman, M.J.; Gerdts, E.; Papademetriou, V.; Wachtell, K.; Nieminen, M.S.; Dahlöf, B.; Devereux, R.B. Pulse pressure/stroke index and left ventricular geometry and function: the LIFE Study. J. Hypertens., 2003, 21(4), 781-787.
[42]
Larstorp, A.C.; Ariansen, I.; Gjesdal, K.; Olsen, M.H.; Ibsen, H.; Devereux, R.B.; Okin, P.M.; Dahlöf, B.; Kjeldsen, S.E.; Wachtell, K. Association of pulse pressure with new-onset atrial fibrillation in patients with hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy: The Losartan Intervention for Endpoint (LIFE) reduction in hypertension study. Hypertension, 2012, 60(2), 347-353.
[43]
Lantelme, P.; Laurent, S.; Besnard, C.; Bricca, G.; Vincent, M.; Legedz, L.; Milon, H. Arterial stiffness is associated with left atrial size in hypertensive patients. Arch. Cardiovasc. Dis., 2008, 101(1), 35-40.
[44]
Chamontin, B. Evaluation of aortic stiffness to predict and prevent the risk of atrial fibrillation in hypertensive patients in their 50's. Arch. Cardiovasc. Dis., 2008, 101(1), 9-10.
[45]
Mahadavan, G.; Nguyen, T.H.; Horowitz, J.D. Brain natriuretic peptide: A biomarker for all cardiac disease? Curr. Opin. Cardiol., 2014, 29(2), 160-166.
[46]
Tadic, M.; Ivanovic, B.; Cuspidi, C. What do we actually know about the relationship between arterial hypertension and atrial fibrillation? Blood Press., 2014, 23(2), 81-88.
[47]
Suzuki, M.; Yamamoto, K.; Watanabe, S.; Iwata, T.; Hamada, M.; Hiwada, K. Association between elevated brain natriuretic peptide levels and the development of left ventricular hypertrophy in patients with hypertension. Am. J. Med., 2000, 108(8), 627-633.
[48]
Dixen, U.; Ravn, L.; Soeby-Rasmussen, C.; Paulsen, A.W.; Parner, J.; Frandsen, E.; Jensen, G.B. Raised plasma aldosterone and natriuretic peptides in atrial fibrillation. Cardiology, 2007, 108(1), 35-39.
[49]
Latini, R.; Masson, S.; Pirelli, S.; Barlera, S.; Pulitano, G.; Carbonieri, E.; Gulizia, M.; Vago, T.; Favero, C.; Zdunek, D.; Struck, J.; Staszewsky, L.; Maggioni, A.P.; Franzosi, M.G.; Disertori, M. Circulating cardiovascular biomarkers in recurrent atrial fibrillation: data from the GISSI-atrial fibrillation trial. J. Intern. Med., 2011, 269(2), 160-171.
[50]
Badran, H.M.; Eid, M.A.; Michael, A. Doppler-derived indexes and B-type natriuretic peptide in prediction of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation in essential hypertension: a prospective study. Echocardiography, 2007, 24(9), 911-922.
[51]
Karagiannis, A.; Tziomalos, K.; Zamboulis, C. Plasma B-type natriuretic peptide is related to left ventricular mass in hypertensive patients. Eur. Heart J., 2004, 25(21), 1967.
[52]
Giannopoulos, G.; Kossyvakis, C.; Angelidis, C.; Efremidis, M.; Panagopoulou, V.; Letsas, K.; Bouras, G.; Vassilikos, V.P.; Goudevenos, J.; Tousoulis, D.; Lekakis, J.; Deftereos, S. Amino-terminal B-natriuretic peptide levels and postablation recurrence in hypertensive patients with paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. Heart Rhythm, 2015, 12(7), 1470-1475.
[53]
Ichiki, T.; Huntley, B.K.; Burnett, J.C., Jr BNP molecular forms and processing by the cardiac serine protease corin. Adv. Clin. Chem., 2013, 61, 1-31.
[54]
Semenov, A.G.; Tamm, N.N.; Seferian, K.R.; Postnikov, A.B.; Karpova, N.S.; Serebryanaya, D.V.; Koshkina, E.V.; Krasnoselsky, M.I.; Katrukha, A.G. Processing of pro-B-type natriuretic peptide: Furin and corin as candidate convertases. Clin. Chem., 2010, 56(7), 1166-1176.
[55]
Chen, F.; Xia, Y.; Liu, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Song, W.; Zhong, Y.; Gao, L.; Jin, Y.; Li, S.; Jiang, Y.; Yang, Y. Increased plasma corin levels in patients with atrial fibrillation. Clin. Chim. Acta, 2015, 447, 79-85.
[56]
Huang, M.; Gai, X.; Yang, X.; Hou, J.; Lan, X.; Zheng, W.; Chen, F.; He, J. Functional polymorphisms in ACE and CYP11B2 genes and atrial fibrillation in patients with hypertensive heart disease. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med., 2009, 47(1), 32-37.
[57]
Tziakas, D.N.; Chalikias, G.K.; Stakos, D.A.; Papazoglou, D.; Papanas, N.; Papatheodorou, K.; Chatzikyriakou, S.V.; Kotsiou, S.; Maltezos, E.; Boudoulas, H. Effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme insertion/deletion genotype on collagen type I synthesis and degradation in patients with atrial fibrillation and arterial hypertension. Expert Opin. Pharmacother., 2007, 8(14), 2225-2234.
[58]
Yao, S.Y.; Chu, J.M.; Chen, K.P. Inflammation in lone AF. Clin. Cardiol., 2009, 32(2), 94-98.
[59]
Bruins, P.; te Velthuis, H.; Yazdanbakhsh, A.P.; Jansen, P.G.; van Hardevelt, F.W.; de Beaumont, E.M.; Wildevuur, C.R.; Eijsman, L.; Trouwborst, A.; Hack, C.E. Activation of the complement system during and after cardiopulmonary bypass surgery: Postsurgery activation involves C-reactive protein and is associated with postoperative arrhythmia. Circulation, 1997, 96(10), 3542-3548.
[60]
Frustaci, A.; Chimenti, C.; Bellocci, F. Histological substrate of atrial biopsies in patients with lone AF. Circulation, 1997, 96(4), 1180-1184.
[61]
Devaraj, S.; Singh, U.; Jialal, I. The evolving role of C-reactive protein in atherothrombosis. Clin. Chem., 2009, 55(2), 229-238.
[62]
Marott, S.C.; Nordestgaard, B.G.; Zacho, J. Does elevated C-reactive protein increase AF risk? A Mendelian randomization of 47,000 individuals from the general population. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., 2010, 56(10), 789-795.
[63]
Aviles, RJ1.; Martin, Do.; Apperson-Hansen, C. Inflammation as a risk factor for AF. Circulation, 2003, 108(24), 3006-3010.
[64]
Ellinor, P.T.; Low, A.; Patton, K.K. C-reactive protein in lone AF. Am. J. Cardiol., 2006, 97(9), 1346-1350.
[65]
Chung, M.K.; Martin, D.O.; Sprecher, D. C-reactive protein elevation in patients with atrial arrhythmias: Inflammatory mechanisms and persistence of AF. Circulation, 2001, 104(24), 2886-2891.
[66]
Anderson, J.L.; Allen Maycock, C.A.; Lappé, D.L. Frequency of elevation of C-reactive protein in AF. Am. J. Cardiol., 2004, 94(10), 1255-1259.
[67]
Hu, Y.F.; Chen, Y.J.; Lin, Y.J.; Chen, S.A. Inflammation and the pathogenesis of AF. Nat. Rev. Cardiol., 2015, 12(4), 230-243.
[68]
Lumeng, C.N.; DelProposto, J.B.; Westcott, D.J.; Saltiel, A.R. Phenotypic switching of adipose tissue macrophages with obesity is generated by spatiotemporal differences in macrophage subtypes. Diabetes, 2008, 57(12), 3239-3246.
[69]
Lumeng, C.N.; Bodzin, J.L.; Saltiel, A.R. Obesity induces a phenotypic switch in adipose tissue macrophage polarization. J. Clin. Invest., 2007, 117(1), 175-184.
[70]
Mazurek, T.; Kiliszek, M.; Kobylecka, M. Relation of proinflammatory activity of epicardial adipose tissue to the occurrence of AF. Am. J. Cardiol., 2014, 113(9), 1505-1508.
[71]
Guo, Y.; Lip, G.H.; Apostolakis, S. Inflammation in AF. Clin. Cardiol., 2009, 32(2), 94-98.
[72]
Conway, D.S.; Therkelsen, S.K.; Bruunsgaard, H. Prognostic impact of hs-CRP and IL-6 in patients with persistent AF treated with electrical cardioversion. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest., 2009, 69(3), 425-432.
[73]
Li, J.; Song, J.; Jiang, M.H.; Zheng, J.G.; Gao, S.P.; Zhu, J.H.; Pan, M. Interleukin-6 promoter polymorphisms and susceptibility to atrial fibrillation in elderly Han Chinese patients with essential hypertension. J. Interferon Cytokine Res., 2012, Nov 32(11), 542-547.
[74]
Kottkamp, H. AF substrate: the ‘unknown species’ — from lone atrial fibrillation to fibrotic atrial cardiomyopathy. Eur. Heart J., 2013, 34(35), 2731-2738.
[75]
Kottkamp, H. Fibrotic atrial cardiomyopathy: a specific disease/syndrome supplying substrates for AF, atrial tachycardia, sinus node disease, AV node disease, and thromboembolic complications. J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol., 2012, 23(7), 797-799.
[76]
Lau, D.H.; Mackenzie, L.; Kelly, D.J. HTN and AF: Evidence of progressive atrial remodeling with electrostructural correlate in a conscious chronically instrumented ovine model. Heart Rhythm, 2010, 7(9), 1282-1290.
[77]
Lau, D.H.; Shipp, N.J.; Kelly, D.J.; Thanigaimani, S.; Neo, M.; Kuklik, P.; Lim, H.S.; Zhang, Y.; Drury, K.; Wong, C.X.; Chia, N.H.; Brooks, A.G.; Dimitri, H.; Saint, D.A.; Brown, L.; Sanders, P. Atrial arrhythmia in ageing spontaneously hypertensive rats: unraveling the substrate in hypertension and ageing. PLoS One, 2013, 8(8), e72416.
[78]
Boldt, A.; Wetzel, U.; Lauschke, J. Fibrosis in left atrial tissue of patients with AF with and without underlying mitral valve disease. Heart, 2004, 90(4), 400-405.
[79]
Kalogeropoulos, A.S.; Tsiodras, S.; Rigopoulos, A.G. Novel association patterns of cardiac remodeling markers in patients with essential HTN and AFBMC. Cardiovasc. Dis., 2011, 11, 77.
[80]
Corradi, D.; Callegari, S.; Maestri, R. Structural remodeling in AF. Nat. Clin. Pract. Cardiovasc. Med., 2008, 5(12), 782-796.
[81]
Shin, S.Y.; Jo, W.M.; Min, T.J.; Kim, B.K.; Song, D.H.; Hyeon, S.H.; Kwon, J.E.; Lee, W.S.; Lee, K.J.; Kim, S.W.; Kim, T.H.; Kim, C.J.; Im, S.I.; Lim, H.E. Gap junction remodelling by chronic pressure overload is related to the increased susceptibility to atrial fibrillation in rat heart. Europace, 2015, 17(4), 655-663.

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy