Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1381-6128
ISSN (Online): 1873-4286

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Role of in vivo and in vitro Tests in the Diagnosis of Severe Cutaneous Adverse Reactions (SCAR) to Drug

Author(s): Marcel M. Bergmann * and Jean-Christoph Caubet

Volume 25, Issue 36, 2019

Page: [3872 - 3880] Pages: 9

DOI: 10.2174/1381612825666191107104126

Price: $65

Abstract

Severe cutaneous adverse reactions (SCAR) are life-threatening conditions including acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis (AGEP), Stevens-Johnson Syndrome (SJS), toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) and drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS). Diagnosis of causative underlying drug hypersensitivity (DH) is mandatory due to the high morbidity and mortality upon re-exposure with the incriminated drug. If an underlying DH is suspected, in vivo test, including patch tests (PTs), delayed-reading intradermal tests (IDTs) and in vitro tests can be performed in selected patients for which the suspected culprit drug is mandatory, or in order to find a safe alternative treatment. Positivity of in vivo and in vitro tests in SCAR to drug varies depending on the type of reaction and the incriminated drugs. Due to the severe nature of these reactions, drug provocation test (DPT) is highly contraindicated in patients who experienced SCAR. Thus, sensitivity is based on positive test results in patients with a suggestive clinical history. Patch tests still remain the first-line diagnostic tests in the majority of patients with SCAR, followed, in case of negative results, by delayed-reading IDTs, with the exception of patients with bullous diseases where IDTs are still contra-indicated. In vitro tests have shown promising results in the diagnosis of SCAR to drug. Positivity is particularly high when the lymphocyte transformation test (LTT) is combined with cytokines and cytotoxic markers measurement (cyto-LTT), but this still has to be confirmed with larger studies. Due to the rarity of SCAR, large multi-center collaborative studies are needed to better study the sensitivity and specificity of in vivo and in vitro tests.

Keywords: SCAR, drug hypersensitivity, drug allergy, children, in vitro tests, in vivo tests.

« Previous Next »
[1]
Roujeau JC, Stern RS. Severe adverse cutaneous reactions to drugs. N Engl J Med 1994; 331(19): 1272-85.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199411103311906] [PMID: 7794310]
[2]
Duong TA, Valeyrie-Allanore L, Wolkenstein P, Chosidow O. Severe cutaneous adverse reactions to drugs. Lancet 2017; 390(10106): 1996-2011.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30378-6] [PMID: 28476287]
[3]
Auquier-Dunant A, Mockenhaupt M, Naldi L, Correia O, Schröder W, Roujeau JC. Correlations between clinical patterns and causes of erythema multiforme majus, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, and toxic epidermal necrolysis: results of an international prospective study. Arch Dermatol 2002; 138(8): 1019-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archderm.138.8.1019] [PMID: 12164739]
[4]
Roujeau JC, Kelly JP, Naldi L, et al. Medication use and the risk of stevens-johnson syndrome or toxic epidermal necrolysis. N Engl J Med 1995; 333(24): 1600-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199512143332404] [PMID: 7477195]
[5]
Sassolas B, Haddad C, Mockenhaupt M, et al. ALDEN, an algorithm for assessment of drug causality in stevens-johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis: comparison with case-control analysis. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2010; 88(1): 60-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/clpt.2009.252] [PMID: 20375998]
[6]
Tomaino J, Keegan T, Miloh T, et al. Stevens-johnson syndrome after mycoplasma pneumonia infection in pediatric post-liver transplant recipient: case report and review of the literature. Pediatr Transplant 2012; 16(3): e74-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3046.2010.01424.x] [PMID: 21176015]
[7]
Pande S. Causality or relatedness assessment in adverse drug reaction and its relevance in dermatology. Indian J Dermatol 2018; 63(1): 18-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/ijd.IJD_579_17] [PMID: 29527021]
[8]
Mouton JP, Mehta U, Rossiter DP, Maartens G, Cohen K. Interrater agreement of two adverse drug reaction causality assessment methods: a randomised comparison of the liverpool adverse drug reaction causality assessment tool and the world health organization-uppsala monitoring centre system. PLoS One 2017; 12(2)e0172830
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172830] [PMID: 28235001]
[9]
Naranjo CA, Busto U, Sellers EM, et al. A method for estimating the probability of adverse drug reactions. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1981; 30(2): 239-45.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/clpt.1981.154] [PMID: 7249508]
[10]
Kramer MS, Leventhal JM, Hutchinson TA, Feinstein AR. An algorithm for the operational assessment of adverse drug reactions. I. Background, description, and instructions for use. JAMA 1979; 242(7): 623-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1979.03300070019017] [PMID: 449002]
[11]
Jones JK. Adverse drug reactions in the community health setting: approaches to recognizing, counseling, and reporting. Fam Community Health 1982; 5(2): 58-67.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00003727-198208000-00009] [PMID: 10278126]
[12]
Karch FE, Lasagna L. Toward the operational identification of adverse drug reactions. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1977; 21(3): 247-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cpt1977213247] [PMID: 837643]
[13]
Bégaud B, Evreux JC, Jouglard J, Lagier G. [Imputation of the unexpected or toxic effects of drugs. Actualization of the method used in France] Therapie 1985; 40(2): 111-8.
[PMID: 4002188]
[14]
Mashford ML. The Australian method of drug-event assessment. Special workshop-regulatory. Drug Inf J 1984; 18(3-4): 271-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/009286158401800313] [PMID: 10268555]
[15]
Lanctôt KL, Naranjo CA. Computer-assisted evaluation of adverse events using a Bayesian approach. J Clin Pharmacol 1994; 34(2): 142-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/j.1552-4604.1994.tb03978.x] [PMID: 8163714]
[16]
Demoly P, Adkinson NF, Brockow K, et al. International consensus on drug allergy. Allergy 2014; 69(4): 420-37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/all.12350] [PMID: 24697291]
[17]
Barbaud A. Skin testing and patch testing in non-IgE-mediated drug allergy. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 2014; 14(6): 442.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11882-014-0442-8] [PMID: 24740692]
[18]
Brockow K, Romano A, Blanca M, Ring J, Pichler W, Demoly P. General considerations for skin test procedures in the diagnosis of drug hypersensitivity. Allergy 2002; 57(1): 45-51.
[PMID: 11991289]
[19]
Phillips EJ, Bigliardi P, Bircher AJ, et al. Controversies in drug allergy: testing for delayed reactions. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2019; 143(1): 66-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2018.10.030] [PMID: 30573342]
[20]
Papakonstantinou E, Müller S, Röhrbein JH, et al. Generalized reactions during skin testing with clindamycin in drug hypersensitivity: a report of 3 cases and review of the literature. Contact Dermat 2018; 78(4): 274-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cod.12956] [PMID: 29356000]
[21]
Shebe K, Ngwanya MR, Gantsho N, Lehloenya RJ. Severe recurrence of drug rash with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms syndrome secondary to rifampicin patch testing in a human immunodeficiency virus-infected man. Contact Dermat 2014; 70(2): 125-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cod.12155] [PMID: 24450829]
[22]
Córdoba S, Navarro-Vidal B, Martínez-Morán C, Borbujo J. Reactivation of skin lesions after patch testing to investigate drug rash with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms (DRESS) syndrome. Actas Dermosifiliogr 2016; 107(9): 781-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adengl.2016.08.015] [PMID: 27340118]
[23]
Barbaud A, Collet E, Milpied B, et al. A multicentre study to determine the value and safety of drug patch tests for the three main classes of severe cutaneous adverse drug reactions. Br J Dermatol 2013; 168(3): 555-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bjd.12125] [PMID: 23136927]
[24]
Britschgi M, Steiner UC, Schmid S, et al. T-cell involvement in drug-induced acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis. J Clin Invest 2001; 107(11): 1433-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/JCI12118] [PMID: 11390425]
[25]
Wolkenstein P, Chosidow O, Fléchet ML, et al. Patch testing in severe cutaneous adverse drug reactions, including stevens-johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis. Contact Dermat 1996; 35(4): 234-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0536.1996.tb02364.x] [PMID: 8957644]
[26]
Barbaud A. Skin testing in delayed reactions to drugs. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2009; 29(3): 517-35.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.iac.2009.04.010] [PMID: 19563995]
[27]
Lin Y-T, Chang Y-C, Hui RC-Y, et al. A patch testing and cross-sensitivity study of carbamazepine-induced severe cutaneous adverse drug reactions. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2013; 27(3): 356-64.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3083.2011.04418.x] [PMID: 22211830]
[28]
Santiago F, Gonçalo M, Vieira R, Coelho S, Figueiredo A. Epicutaneous patch testing in drug hypersensitivity syndrome (DRESS). Contact Dermat 2010; 62(1): 47-53.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0536.2009.01659.x] [PMID: 20136879]
[29]
Gex-Collet C, Helbling A, Pichler WJ. Multiple drug hypersensitivity-proof of multiple drug hypersensitivity by patch and lymphocyte transformation tests. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 2005; 15(4): 293-6.
[PMID: 16433211]
[30]
Soria A, Hamelin A, de Risi Pugliese T, Amsler E, Barbaud A. Are drug intradermal tests dangerous to explore cross-reactivity and co-sensitization in DRESS? Br J Dermatol 2019; 181(3): 611-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bjd.17835] [PMID: 30811579]
[31]
Studer M, Waton J, Bursztejn A-C, Aimone-Gastin I, Schmutz JL, Barbaud A. [Does hypersensitivity to multiple drugs really exist?] Ann Dermatol Venereol 2012; 139(5): 375-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.annder.2012.03.017] [PMID: 22578342]
[32]
Pinho A, Coutinho I, Gameiro A, Gouveia M, Gonçalo M. Patch testing - a valuable tool for investigating non-immediate cutaneous adverse drug reactions to antibiotics. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2017; 31(2): 280-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jdv.13796] [PMID: 27477905]
[33]
Brajon D, Menetre S, Waton J, Poreaux C, Barbaud A. Non-irritant concentrations and amounts of active ingredient in drug patch tests. Contact Dermat 2014; 71(3): 170-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cod.12269] [PMID: 24981708]
[34]
Barbaud A, Gonçalo M, Bruynzeel D, Bircher A. Guidelines for performing skin tests with drugs in the investigation of cutaneous adverse drug reactions. Contact Dermat 2001; 45(6): 321-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0536.2001.450601.x] [PMID: 11846746]
[35]
Phillips EJ, Sullivan JR, Knowles SR, Shear NH. Utility of patch testing in patients with hypersensitivity syndromes associated with abacavir. AIDS 2002; 16(16): 2223-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200211080-00017] [PMID: 12409746]
[36]
Uyesugi BA, Sheehan MP. Patch testing pearls. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 2019; 56(1): 110-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12016-018-8715-y] [PMID: 30269296]
[37]
Wilkinson DS, Fregert S, Magnusson B, et al. Terminology of contact dermatitis. Acta Derm Venereol 1970; 50(4): 287-92.
[PMID: 4195865]
[38]
Waton J, Tréchot P, Loss-Ayav C, Schmutz JL, Barbaud A. Negative predictive value of drug skin tests in investigating cutaneous adverse drug reactions. Br J Dermatol 2009; 160(4): 786-94.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2008.08975.x] [PMID: 19120340]
[39]
Cabañas R, Calderon O, Ramirez E, et al. Piperacillin-induced DRESS: distinguishing features observed in a clinical and allergy study of 8 patients. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 2014; 24(6): 425-30.
[PMID: 25668894]
[40]
Romano A, Torres MJ, Castells M, Sanz ML, Blanca M. Diagnosis and management of drug hypersensitivity reactions. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011; 127(3)(Suppl.): S67-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2010.11.047] [PMID: 21354502]
[41]
Benucci M, Manfredi M, Demoly P, Campi P. Injection site reactions to TNF-alpha blocking agents with positive skin tests. Allergy 2008; 63(1): 138-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1398-9995.2007.01536.x] [PMID: 18053024]
[42]
Trubiano JA, Douglas AP, Goh M, Slavin MA, Phillips EJ. The safety of antibiotic skin testing in severe T-cell-mediated hypersensitivity of immunocompetent and immunocompromised hosts. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 2019; 7(4): 1341-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2018.09.014] [PMID: 30266590]
[43]
Brockow K, Przybilla B, Aberer W, et al. Guideline for the diagnosis of drug hypersensitivity reactions: S2K-guideline of the german society for allergology and clinical immunology (DGAKI) and the german dermatological society (DDG) in collaboration with the association of german allergologists (AeDA), the german society for pediatric allergology and environmental medicine (GPA), the german contact dermatitis research group (DKG), the swiss society for allergy and immunology (SGAI), the austrian society for allergology and immunology (ÖGAI), the german academy of allergology and environmental medicine (DAAU), the german center for documentation of severe skin reactions and the german federal institute for drugs and medical products (BfArM). Allergo J Int 2015; 24(3): 94-105.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40629-015-0052-6] [PMID: 26120552]
[44]
Brockow K, Garvey LH, Aberer W, et al. Skin test concentrations for systemically administered drugs - an ENDA/EAACI drug allergy interest group position paper. Allergy 2013; 68(6): 702-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/all.12142] [PMID: 23617635]
[45]
White KD, Chung W-H, Hung S-I, Mallal S, Phillips EJ. Evolving models of the immunopathogenesis of T cell-mediated drug allergy: the role of host, pathogens, and drug response. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2015; 136(2): 219-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2015.05.050] [PMID: 26254049]
[46]
Mayorga C, Ebo DG, Lang DM, et al. Controversies in drug allergy: In vitro testing. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2019; 143(1): 56-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2018.09.022] [PMID: 30573343]
[47]
Mayorga C, Celik G, Rouzaire P, et al. In vitro tests for drug hypersensitivity reactions: an ENDA/EAACI drug allergy interest group position paper. Allergy 2016; 71(8): 1103-34.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/all.12886] [PMID: 26991315]
[48]
Peter JG, Lehloenya R, Dlamini S, et al. Severe delayed cutaneous and systemic reactions to drugs: a global perspective on the science and art of current practice. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 2017; 5(3): 547-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2017.01.025] [PMID: 28483310]
[49]
Trubiano JA, Strautins K, Redwood AJ, et al. The combined utility of ex vivo IFN-γ release enzyme-linked immunospot assay and in vivo skin testing in patients with antibiotic-associated severe cutaneous adverse reactions. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 2018; 6(4): 1287-96.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2017.09.004] [PMID: 29100867]
[50]
Porebski G, Gschwend-Zawodniak A, Pichler WJ. In vitro diagnosis of T cell-mediated drug allergy. Clin Exp Allergy 2011; 41(4): 461-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.2011.03701.x] [PMID: 21338430]
[51]
Kano Y, Hirahara K, Mitsuyama Y, Takahashi R, Shiohara T. Utility of the lymphocyte transformation test in the diagnosis of drug sensitivity: dependence on its timing and the type of drug eruption. Allergy 2007; 62(12): 1439-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1398-9995.2007.01553.x] [PMID: 17983378]
[52]
Rozieres A, Hennino A, Rodet K, et al. Detection and quantification of drug-specific T cells in penicillin allergy. Allergy 2009; 64(4): 534-42.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1398-9995.2008.01674.x] [PMID: 19154548]
[53]
Rodriguez-Pena R, Lopez S, Mayorga C, et al. Potential involvement of dendritic cells in delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions to beta-lactams. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006; 118(4): 949-56.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2006.07.013] [PMID: 17030251]
[54]
Orasch CE, Helbling A, Zanni MP, Yawalkar N, Hari Y, Pichler WJ. T-cell reaction to local anaesthetics: relationship to angioedema and urticaria after subcutaneous application-patch testing and LTT in patients with adverse reaction to local anaesthetics. Clin Exp Allergy 1999; 29(11): 1549-54.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2222.1999.00693.x] [PMID: 10520085]
[55]
Luque I, Leyva L, José Torres M, et al. In vitro T-cell responses to beta-lactam drugs in immediate and nonimmediate allergic reactions. Allergy 2001; 56(7): 611-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1034/j.1398-9995.2001.000115.x] [PMID: 11421918]
[56]
Polak ME, Belgi G, McGuire C, et al. In vitro diagnostic assays are effective during the acute phase of delayed-type drug hypersensitivity reactions. Br J Dermatol 2013; 168(3): 539-49.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bjd.12109] [PMID: 23106791]
[57]
Sachs B, Erdmann S, Malte Baron J, Neis M, al Masaoudi T, Merk HF. Determination of interleukin-5 secretion from drug-specific activated ex vivo peripheral blood mononuclear cells as a test system for the in vitro detection of drug sensitization. Clin Exp Allergy 2002; 32(5): 736-44.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2222.2002.01382.x] [PMID: 11994099]
[58]
Porebski G, Pecaric-Petkovic T, Groux-Keller M, Bosak M, Kawabata TT, Pichler WJ. In vitro drug causality assessment in stevens-johnson syndrome - alternatives for lymphocyte transformation test. Clin Exp Allergy 2013; 43(9): 1027-37.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cea.12145] [PMID: 23957338]
[59]
Roujeau JC, Albengres E, Moritz S, et al. Lymphocyte transformation test in drug-induced toxic epidermal necrolysis. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 1985; 78(1): 22-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000233856] [PMID: 3875565]
[60]
Houwerzijl J, De Gast GC, Nater JP, Esselink MT, Nieweg HO. Lymphocyte-stimulation tests and patch tests to carbamazepine hypersensitivity. Clin Exp Immunol 1977; 29(2): 272-7.
[PMID: 908175]
[61]
Hanafusa T, Azukizawa H, Matsumura S, Katayama I. The predominant drug-specific T-cell population may switch from cytotoxic T cells to regulatory T cells during the course of anticonvulsant-induced hypersensitivity. J Dermatol Sci 2012; 65(3): 213-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdermsci.2011.12.002] [PMID: 22226608]
[62]
Porebski G. In Vitro assays in severe cutaneous adverse drug reactions: are they still research tools or diagnostic tests already? Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18(8)e1737
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms18081737] [PMID: 28796198]
[63]
Lochmatter P, Beeler A, Kawabata TT, Gerber BO, Pichler WJ. Drug-specific in vitro release of IL-2, IL-5, IL-13 and IFN-gamma in patients with delayed-type drug hypersensitivity. Allergy 2009; 64(9): 1269-78.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1398-9995.2009.01985.x] [PMID: 19254289]
[64]
Phillips EJ, Chung W-H, Mockenhaupt M, Roujeau JC, Mallal SA. Drug hypersensitivity: pharmacogenetics and clinical syndromes. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011; 127(3)(Suppl.): S60-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2010.11.046] [PMID: 21354501]
[65]
Mallal S, Phillips E, Carosi G, et al. HLA-B*5701 screening for hypersensitivity to abacavir. N Engl J Med 2008; 358(6): 568-79.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0706135] [PMID: 18256392]
[66]
Colombo S, Rauch A, Rotger M, et al. The HCP5 single-nucleotide polymorphism: a simple screening tool for prediction of hypersensitivity reaction to abacavir. J Infect Dis 2008; 198(6): 864-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/591184] [PMID: 18684101]
[67]
Hung S-I, Chung W-H, Jee S-H, et al. Genetic susceptibility to carbamazepine-induced cutaneous adverse drug reactions. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2006; 16(4): 297-306.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.fpc.0000199500.46842.4a] [PMID: 16538176]
[68]
Amstutz U, Ross CJD, Castro-Pastrana LI, et al. HLA-A 31:01 and HLA-B 15:02 as genetic markers for carbamazepine hypersensitivity in children. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2013; 94(1): 142-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/clpt.2013.55] [PMID: 23588310]
[69]
Genin E, Chen D-P, Hung S-I, et al. HLA-A*31:01 and different types of carbamazepine-induced severe cutaneous adverse reactions: an international study and meta-analysis. Pharmacogenomics J 2014; 14(3): 281-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/tpj.2013.40] [PMID: 24322785]
[70]
Mehta TY, Prajapati LM, Mittal B, et al. Association of HLA-B*1502 allele and carbamazepine-induced stevens-johnson syndrome among Indians. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2009; 75(6): 579-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/0378-6323.57718] [PMID: 19915237]
[71]
Locharernkul C, Loplumlert J, Limotai C, et al. Carbamazepine and phenytoin induced stevens-johnson syndrome is associated with HLA-B*1502 allele in thai population. Epilepsia 2008; 49(12): 2087-91.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1528-1167.2008.01719.x] [PMID: 18637831]
[72]
McCormack M, Alfirevic A, Bourgeois S, et al. HLA-A*3101 and carbamazepine-induced hypersensitivity reactions in Europeans. N Engl J Med 2011; 364(12): 1134-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1013297] [PMID: 21428769]
[73]
Ozeki T, Mushiroda T, Yowang A, et al. Genome-wide association study identifies HLA-A*3101 allele as a genetic risk factor for carbamazepine-induced cutaneous adverse drug reactions in Japanese population. Hum Mol Genet 2011; 20(5): 1034-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/hmg/ddq537] [PMID: 21149285]
[74]
Lonjou C, Borot N, Sekula P, et al. A European study of HLA-B in stevens-johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis related to five high-risk drugs. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2008; 18(2): 99-107.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FPC.0b013e3282f3ef9c] [PMID: 18192896]
[75]
Hung S-I, Chung W-H, Liou L-B, et al. HLA-B*5801 allele as a genetic marker for severe cutaneous adverse reactions caused by allopurinol. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005; 102(11): 4134-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0409500102] [PMID: 15743917]
[76]
Sekula P, Dunant A, Mockenhaupt M, et al. Comprehensive survival analysis of a cohort of patients with stevens-johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis. J Invest Dermatol 2013; 133(5): 1197-204.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/jid.2012.510] [PMID: 23389396]
[77]
Hsu DY, Brieva J, Silverberg NB, Silverberg JI. Morbidity and mortality of stevens-johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis in united states adults. J Invest Dermatol 2016; 136(7): 1387-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jid.2016.03.023] [PMID: 27039263]
[78]
Cacoub P, Musette P, Descamps V, et al. The DRESS syndrome: a literature review. Am J Med 2011; 124(7): 588-97.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2011.01.017] [PMID: 21592453]
[79]
Chen Y-C, Chiu H-C, Chu C-Y. Drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms: a retrospective study of 60 cases. Arch Dermatol 2010; 146(12): 1373-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archdermatol.2010.198] [PMID: 20713773]
[80]
Lehloenya RJ, Todd G, Badri M, Dheda K. Outcomes of reintroducing anti-tuberculosis drugs following cutaneous adverse drug reactions. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis 2011; 15(12): 1649-57.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.5588/ijtld.10.0698] [PMID: 22118173]
[81]
Gomes ER, Brockow K, Kuyucu S, et al. Drug hypersensitivity in children: report from the pediatric task force of the EAACI Drug Allergy Interest Group. Allergy 2016; 71(2): 149-61.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/all.12774] [PMID: 26416157]
[82]
Caubet J-C, Kaiser L, Lemaître B, Fellay B, Gervaix A, Eigenmann PA. The role of penicillin in benign skin rashes in childhood: a prospective study based on drug rechallenge. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011; 127(1): 218-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2010.08.025] [PMID: 21035175]
[83]
Ponvert CS KC, Scheinmann P, Karila C. Une étude de 30 cas fondée sur les tests cutanés à lecture immediate, semi-retardée et retardée, sur les dosages des anticorps spécifiques et sur les injections de rappel. Revue française d’allergologie et d’immunologie française 2001. 41: 701-11.
[84]
Tohyama M, Hashimoto K, Yasukawa M, et al. Association of human herpesvirus 6 reactivation with the flaring and severity of drug-induced hypersensitivity syndrome. Br J Dermatol 2007; 157(5): 934-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2007.08167.x] [PMID: 17854362]
[85]
Shiohara T, Inaoka M, Kano Y. Drug-induced hypersensitivity syndrome (DIHS): a reaction induced by a complex interplay among herpesviruses and antiviral and antidrug immune responses. Allergol Int 2006; 55(1): 1-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2332/allergolint.55.1] [PMID: 17075280]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
69
6
World Health Day
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy