Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current HIV Research

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1570-162X
ISSN (Online): 1873-4251

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Research Article

The Effect of Antiretroviral Therapy on IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, IFN-γ Levels and their Relationship with HIV-RNA and CD4+ T Cells in HIV Patients

Author(s): Gülay Okay*, Meliha Meric Koc, Eray Metin Guler, Ayşegül Yabaci, Abdürrahim Kocyigit and Yasemin Akkoyunlu

Volume 18, Issue 5, 2020

Page: [354 - 361] Pages: 8

DOI: 10.2174/1570162X18666200712174642

Price: $65

Abstract

Background: Serum cytokine levels over the course of HIV infection usually increase with immunosuppression and decrease after antiretroviral treatment (ART).

Objectives: The aim of the study is to compare cytokine levels between HIV-infected patients (HIP) and controls and investigate the relationship between CD4+T cell count, HIV-RNA levels, and cytokine levels.

Methods: The study subjects comprised ART-naive HIP (n=30) with no comorbidities and age-and sex-matched healthy controls. We measured levels of IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, and IFN-γ in serum samples of HIP at the beginning and at month 6 of ART and in controls.

Results: The mean age of the study subjects was 38.7 ±10.3 years, with men making up 86.7% of the study subjects (n=26). IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α levels were significantly higher in both ART-naive (p<0.001, p=0.002, p=0.001) and ART-experienced HIP (p<0.001) than controls. The IFN-γ level was lower in both ART-naive and ART-experienced HIP compared to controls (p=0.082 and p=0.002). There was a positive correlation between the CD4+T cell count and serum concentration of IFN- γ(r=0.320, p<0.05). While the serum IFN-γ concentration showed a negative correlation with the HIVRNA level(r=-0.412, p<0.001), the serum IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α concentrations showed a positive correlation with the HIV-RNA level (r=0.349, p<0.001; r:0.54, p<0.001; r:0.438, p<0.00).

Conclusion: Although serum concentrations of IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α showed a significant decrease after ART, they were still significantly higher than the controls. IFN-γ responded differently to ART compared to the other cytokines, indicating that it may play a distinct and important role in the pathogenesis of HIV infection.

Keywords: IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, IFN-γ, HIV infection, cytokines, antiretroviral treatment.

« Previous Next »
Graphical Abstract

[1]
World Health Organization (WHO). Global Health Observatory on HIV/AIDS Available from: http://www.who.int/gho/hiv/en/
[2]
Sax PE, Wood BR. The natural history and clinical features of HIV infection in adults and adolescents UpToDate 2020 Available from: https://www.uptodate.com/contents/the-natural-history-andclinical-features-of-hiv-infection-in-adults-and-adolescents?search=HIV&amp;source=search_result&amp;selectedTitle=2~150&amp;usage_type=def
[3]
World Health Organization (WHO) Updated recommendations on first-line and second-line antiretroviral regimens and post-exposure prophylaxis and recommendations on early infant diagnosis of HIV. 2018 Available from: https://www.who.int/hiv/pub/guidelines/ARV2018update/en/
[4]
Kedzierska K, Crowe SM. Cytokines and HIV-1: interactions and clinical implications. Antivir Chem Chemother 2001; 12(3): 133-50.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/095632020101200301 ] [PMID: 12959322]
[5]
Kedzierska K, Crowe SM, Turville S, Cunningham AL. The influence of cytokines, chemokines and their receptors on HIV-1 replication in monocytes and macrophages. Rev Med Virol 2003; 13(1): 39-56.
[6]
Roff SR, Noon-Song EN, Yamamoto JK. The Significance of Interferonγ in HIV-1 Pathogenesis, Therapy, and Prophylaxis. Front Immunol 2014; 4: 498
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2013.00498] [PMID: 24454311]
[7]
Belardelli F. Role of interferons and other cytokines in the regulation of the immune response. APMIS 1995; 103(3): 161-79.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1699-0463.1995.tb01092.x] [PMID: 7538771]
[8]
D Urbano V, De Crignis E, Re MC. Host Restriction Factors and Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV-1): A Dynamic Interplay Involving All Phases of the Viral Life Cycle. Curr HIV Res 2018; 16(3): 184-207.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1570162X16666180817115830 ] [PMID: 30117396]
[9]
Ramaseri Sunder S, Hanumanth SR, Nagaraju RT, et al. IL-10 high producing genotype predisposes HIV infected individuals to TB infection. Hum Immunol 2012; 73(6): 605-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.humimm.2012.03.012 ] [PMID: 22507621]
[10]
Norris PJ, Pappalardo BL, Custer B, Spotts G, Hecht FM, Busch MP. Elevations in IL-10, TNF-alpha, and IFN-gamma from the earliest point of HIV Type 1 infection. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2006; 22(8): 757-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/aid.2006.22.757 ] [PMID: 16910831]
[11]
Thobakgale C, Naidoo K, McKinnon LR, et al. Interleukin 1-Beta (IL-1β) Production by Innate Cells Following TLR Stimulation Correlates With TB Recurrence in ART-Treated HIV-Infected Patients. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2017; 74(2): 213-0.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0000000000001181] [PMID: 27654812]
[12]
French M, Keane N, McKinnon E, Phung S, Price P. Susceptibility to opportunistic infections in HIV-infected patients with increased CD4 T-cell counts on antiretroviral therapy may be predicted by markers of dysfunctional effector memory CD4 T cells and B cells. HIV Med 2007; 8(3): 148-55.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-1293.2007.00445.x] [PMID: 17461858]
[13]
Akase IE, Musa BOP, Obiako RO, Ahmad Elfulatiy A, Mohammed AA. Immune Dysfunction in HIV: A Possible Role for Pro and Anti-Inflammatory Cytokines in HIV Staging. J Immunol Res 2017; 2017: 4128398.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/4128398 ] [PMID: 29230423]
[14]
Tenorio AR, Zheng Y, Bosch RJ, et al. Soluble markers of inflammation and coagulation but not T-cell activation predict non-AIDS defining morbid events during suppressive antiretroviral treatment. J Infect Dis 2014; 210(8): 1248-59.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiu254 ] [PMID: 24795473]
[15]
Bellissimo F, Pinzone MR, Celesia BM, Cacopardo B, Nunnari G. Baseline CD4/CD8 T-Cell Ratio Predicts Prompt Immune Restoration Upon cART Initiation. Curr HIV Res 2016; 14(6): 491-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1570162X14666160414111554 ] [PMID: 27074946]
[16]
Nordell AD, McKenna M, Borges ÁH, Duprez D, Neuhaus J, Neaton JD. INSIGHT SMART, ESPRIT Study Groups; SILCAAT Scientific Committee. Severity of cardiovascular disease outcomes among patients with HIV is related to markers of inflammation and coagulation. J Am Heart Assoc 2014; 3(3): e000844.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.114.000844 ] [PMID: 24870935]
[17]
Kuller LH, Tracy R, Belloso W, et al. INSIGHT SMART Study Group. Inflammatory and coagulation biomarkers and mortality in patients with HIV infection. PLoS Med 2008; 5(10)e203
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0050203 ] [PMID: 18942885]
[18]
Ledwaba L, Tavel JA, Khabo P, et al. Project Phidisa Biomarkers Team. Pre-ART levels of inflammation and coagulation markers are strong predictors of death in a South African cohort with advanced HIV disease. PLoS One 2012; 7(3)e24243
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0024243 ] [PMID: 22448211]
[19]
Hunt PW, Sinclair E, Rodriguez B, et al. Gut epithelial barrier dysfunction and innate immune activation predict mortality in treated HIV infection. J Infect Dis 2014; 210(8): 1228-38.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiu238 ] [PMID: 24755434]
[20]
Bedimo RJ, McGinnis KA, Dunlap M, Rodriguez-Barradas MC, Justice AC. Incidence of non-AIDS-defining malignancies in HIV infected versus noninfected patients in the HAART era: impact of immunosuppression. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009; 52(2): 203-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0b013e3181b033ab ] [PMID: 19617846]
[21]
Patel P, Hanson DL, Sullivan PS, et al. Adult and Adolescent Spectrum of Disease Project and HIV Outpatient Study Investigators. Incidence of types of cancer among HIV-infected persons compared with the general population in the United States, 1992-2003. Ann Intern Med 2008; 148(10): 728-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-148-10-200805200-00005 ] [PMID: 18490686]
[22]
Lang S, Mary-Krause M, Cotte L, et al. French Hospital Database on HIV-ANRS CO4. Increased risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-infected patients in France, relative to the general population. AIDS 2010; 24(8): 1228-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e328339192f ] [PMID: 20400883]
[23]
Zicari S, Sessa L, Cotugno N, et al. Immune Activation, Inflammation, and Non-AIDS Co-Morbidities in HIV-Infected Patients under Long-Term ART. Viruses 2019; 11(3)E200
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v11030200 ] [PMID: 30818749]
[24]
Hsu DC, Sereti I. Serious Non-AIDS Events: Therapeutic Targets of Immune Activation and Chronic Inflammation in HIV Infection. Drugs 2016; 76(5): 533-49.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s40265-016-0546-7 ] [PMID: 26915027]
[25]
Grulich AE, van Leeuwen MT, Falster MO, Vajdic CM. Incidence of cancers in people with HIV/AIDS compared with immunosuppressed transplant recipients: a meta-analysis. Lancet 2007; 370(9581): 59-67.
[26]
Duprez DA, Neuhaus J, Kuller LH, et al. INSIGHT SMART Study Group. Inflammation, coagulation and cardiovascular disease in HIV-infected individuals. PLoS One 2012; 7(9): e44454.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0044454 ] [PMID: 22970224]
[27]
Lang S, Mary-Krause M, Simon A, et al. French Hospital Database on HIV (FHDH)–ANRS CO4. HIV replication and immune status are independent predictors of the risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-infected individuals. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55(4): 600-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/cis489 ] [PMID: 22610928]
[28]
Neuhaus J, Jacobs DR Jr, Baker JV, et al. Markers of inflammation, coagulation, and renal function are elevated in adults with HIV infection. J Infect Dis 2010; 201(12): 1788-95.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/652749 ] [PMID: 20446848]
[29]
Tien PC, Choi AI, Zolopa AR, et al. Inflammation and mortality in HIV-infected adults: analysis of the FRAM study cohort. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2010; 55(3): 316-22.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0b013e3181e66216] [PMID: 20581689]
[30]
Armah KA, McGinnis K, Baker J, et al. HIV status, burden of comorbid disease, and biomarkers of inflammation, altered coagulation, and monocyte activation. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55(1): 126-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/cis406 ] [PMID: 22534147]
[31]
Boulware DR, Hullsiek KH, Puronen CE, et al. INSIGHT Study Group Higher levels of CRP, D-dimer, IL-6, and hyaluronic acid before initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) are associated with increased risk of AIDS or death. J Infect Dis 2011; 203(11): 1637-46.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jir134 ] [PMID: 21592994]
[32]
Hunt PW, Cao HL, Muzoora C, et al. Impact of CD8+ T-cell activation on CD4+ T-cell recovery and mortality in HIV-infected Ugandans initiating antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2011; 25(17): 2123-31.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e32834c4ac1 ] [PMID: 21881481]
[33]
French MA, King MS, Tschampa JM, da Silva BA, Landay AL. Serum immune activation markers are persistently increased in patients with HIV infection after 6 years of antiretroviral therapy despite suppression of viral replication and reconstitution of CD4+ T cells. J Infect Dis 2009; 200(8): 1212-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/605890 ] [PMID: 19728788]
[34]
Wada NI, Jacobson LP, Margolick JB, et al. The effect of HAART induced HIV suppression on circulating markers of inflammation and immune activation. AIDS 2015; 29(4): 463-71.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0000000000000545 ] [PMID: 25630041]
[35]
Palella FJ Jr, Gange SJ, Benning L, et al. Inflammatory biomarkers and abacavir use in the Women’s Interagency HIV Study and the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. AIDS 2010; 24(11): 1657-65.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e3283389dfa ] [PMID: 20588104]
[36]
Wohl DA, Arnoczy G, Fichtenbaum CJ, et al. Comparison of cardiovascular disease risk markers in HIV-infected patients receiving abacavir and tenofovir: the nucleoside inflammation, coagulation and endothelial function (NICE) study. Antivir Ther (Lond) 2014; 19(2): 141-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3851/IMP2681 ] [PMID: 23985706]
[37]
Martínez E, Larrousse M, Llibre JM, et al. SPIRAL Study Group Substitution of raltegravir for ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitors in HIV-infected patients: the SPIRAL study. AIDS 2010; 24(11): 1697-707.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e32833a608a ] [PMID: 20467288]
[38]
Calza L, Colangeli V, Borderi M, et al. Improvement in liver steatosis after the switch from a ritonavir-boosted protease inhibitor to raltegravir in HIV-infected patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Infect Dis (Lond) 2019; 51(8): 593-601.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23744235.2019.1629008 ] [PMID: 31219362]
[39]
Watanabe D, Uehira T, Yonemoto H, et al. Sustained high levels of serum interferon-γ during HIV-1 infection: a specific trend different from other cytokines. Viral Immunol 2010; 23(6): 619-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/vim.2010.0065 ] [PMID: 21142447]
[40]
Ryom L, Boesecke C, Bracchi M, et al. EACS Governing Board. Highlights of the 2017 European AIDS Clinical Society (EACS) Guidelines for the treatment of adult HIV-positive persons version 9.0. HIV Med 2018; 19(5): 309-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/hiv.12600 ] [PMID: 29493093]
[41]
Laurence J. T-cell subsets in health, infectious disease, and idiopathic CD4+ T lymphocytopenia. Ann Intern Med 1993; 119(1): 55-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-119-1-199307010-00010] [PMID: 8098929]
[42]
Bastard JP, Soulié C, Fellahi S, et al. Circulating interleukin-6 levels correlate with residual HIV viraemia and markers of immune dysfunction in treatment-controlled HIV-infected patients. Antivir Ther (Lond) 2012; 17(5): 915-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3851/IMP2093 ] [PMID: 22436412]
[43]
Funderburg NT. Markers of coagulation and inflammation often remain elevated in ART-treated HIV-infected patients. Curr Opin HIV AIDS 2014; 9(1): 80-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/COH.0000000000000019 ] [PMID: 24275673]
[44]
Jong E, Louw S, van Gorp ECM, Meijers JCM, ten Cate H, Jacobson BF. The effect of initiating combined antiretroviral therapy on endothelial cell activation and coagulation markers in South African HIV-infected individuals. Thromb Haemost 2010; 104(6): 1228-34.
[45]
Mamadou D, Yu-Huang Z, Xia C, et al. HIV DNA and immune alteration during successful HAART. Curr HIV Res 2013; 11(4): 255-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1570162X113119990041] [PMID: 23822818]
[46]
Reingold J, Wanke C, Kotler D, et al. Association of HIV infection and HIV/HCV coinfection with C-reactive protein levels: the fat redistribution and metabolic change in HIV infection (FRAM) study. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2008; 48(2): 142-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0b013e3181685727] [PMID: 18344877]
[47]
Wang RJ, Moore J, Moisi D, et al. HIV infection is associated with elevated biomarkers of immune activation in Ugandan adults with pneumonia. PLoS One 2019; 14(5): e0216680.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0216680 ] [PMID: 31091258]
[48]
So-Armah KA, Tate JP, Chang CH, et al. VACS Project Team. Do Biomarkers of Inflammation, Monocyte Activation, and Altered Coagulation Explain Excess Mortality Between HIV Infected and Uninfected People? J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2016; 72(2): 206-13.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAI.0000000000000954 ] [PMID: 27824677]
[49]
van Gorp EC, Suharti C, ten Cate H, et al. Review: infectious diseases and coagulation disorders. J Infect Dis 1999; 180(1): 176-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/314829 ] [PMID: 10353876]
[50]
Connolly NC, Riddler SA, Rinaldo CR. Proinflammatory cytokines in HIV disease-a review and rationale for new therapeutic approaches AIDS Rev 2005; 7(3): 168-80.
[PMID: 16302465]
[51]
Angelidou K, Hunt PW, Landay AL, et al. Changes in Inflammation but Not in T-Cell Activation Precede Non-AIDS-Defining Events in a Case-Control Study of Patients on Long-term Antiretroviral Therapy. J Infect Dis 2018; 218(2): 239-48.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jix666] [PMID: 29309629]
[52]
Prendergast AJ, Szubert AJ, Berejena C, et al. ARROW Trial Team. Baseline Inflammatory Biomarkers Identify Subgroups of HIV-Infected African Children With Differing Responses to Antiretroviral Therapy. J Infect Dis 2016; 214(2): 226-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiw148 ] [PMID: 27190179]
[53]
Mahajan SD, Gaekwad A, Pawar J, et al. Cardiac morbidity in an HIV-1 lipodystrophy patient cohort expressing the TNF-α-238 G/A single nucleotide gene polymorphism. Curr HIV Res 2015; 13(2): 98-108.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1570162X12666141202125016 ] [PMID: 25439236]
[54]
Peterson TE, Baker JV. Assessing inflammation and its role in comorbidities among persons living with HIV Curr Opin Infect Dis 2019; 32(1): 8-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QCO.0000000000000510] [PMID: 30461454]
[55]
Manion M, Andrade BB, DerSimonian R, et al. Country of residence is associated with distinct inflammatory biomarker signatures in HIV-infected patients. J Virus Erad 2017; 3(1): 24-33.
[PMID: 28275455]
[56]
Lichtfuss GF, Hoy J, Rajasuriar R, Kramski M, Crowe SM, Lewin SR. Biomarkers of immune dysfunction following combination antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection. Biomarkers Med 2011; 5(2): 171-86.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2217/bmm.11.15 ] [PMID: 21473720]
[57]
Sabin CA, Worm SW, Weber R, et al. D:A:D Study Group. Use of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-infected patients enrolled in the D:A:D study: a multi-cohort collaboration. Lancet 2008; 371(9622): 1417-26.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)60423-7] [PMID: 18387667]
[58]
Strategies for Management of Anti-Retroviral Therapy/INSIGHT; DAD Study Groups. Use of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors and risk of myocardial infarction in HIV-infected patients. AIDS 2008; 22(14): F17-24.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e32830fe35e ] [PMID: 18753925]
[59]
Calza L, Magistrelli E, Danese I, et al. Changes in Serum Markers of Inflammation and Endothelial Activation in HIV-Infected Antiretroviral Naive Patients Starting A Treatment with Abacavir-Lamivudine or Tenofovir-Emtricitabine Plus Efavirenz. Curr HIV Res 2016; 14(1): 61-70.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1570162X1401151102143222 ] [PMID: 26531764]
[60]
Torre D, Speranza F, Martegani R, et al. Circulating levels of IL-18 in adult and paediatric patients with HIV-1 infection. AIDS 2000; 14(14): 2211-2.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00002030-200009290-00023 ] [PMID: 11061668]
[61]
Orsilles MA, Pieri E, Cooke P, Caula C. IL-2 and IL-10 serum levels in HIV-1-infected patients with or without active antiretroviral therapy. APMIS 2006; 114(1): 55-60.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0463.2006.apm_108.x ] [PMID: 16499662]
[62]
Stylianou E, Bjerkeli V, Yndestad A, et al. Raised serum levels of interleukin-18 is associated with disease progression and may contribute to virological treatment failure in HIV-1-infected patients. Clin Exp Immunol 2003; 132(3): 462-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2249.2003.02179.x] [PMID: 12780693]
[63]
Akerele T, Galatowicz G, Bunce C, Calder V, Lynn WA, Lightman S. Normalized CD8+ but not CD4+ lymphocyte IL-2 expression is associated with early treatment with highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Immunol 2006; 121(2): 191-7.
[64]
Benito JM, López M, Lozano S, González-Lahoz J, Soriano V. Down-regulation of interleukin-7 receptor (CD127) in HIV infection is associated with T cell activation and is a main factor influencing restoration of CD4(+) cells after antiretroviral therapy. J Infect Dis 2008; 198(10): 1466-73.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/592716 ] [PMID: 18847371]
[65]
Llano A, Barretina J, Gutiérrez A, et al. Interleukin-7 in plasma correlates with CD4 T-cell depletion and may be associated with emergence of syncytium-inducing variants in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-positive individuals. J Virol 2001; 75(21): 10319-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JVI.75.21.10319-10325.2001] [PMID: 11581400]
[66]
Stylianou E, Aukrust P, Kvale D, Müller F, Frøland SS. IL-10 in HIV infection: increasing serum IL-10 levels with disease progression-- down-regulatory effect of potent anti-retroviral therapy. Clin Exp Immunol 1999; 116(1): 115-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2249.1999.00865.x] [PMID: 10209514]
[67]
Almeida M, Cordero M, Almeida J, Orfao A. Abnormal cytokine production by circulating monocytes and dendritic cells of myeloid origin in ART-treated HIV-1+ patients relates to CD4+ T-cell recovery and HCV co-infection. Curr HIV Res 2007; 5(3): 325-36.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/157016207780636524 ] [PMID: 17504174]
[68]
Regidor DL, Detels R, Breen EC, et al. Effect of highly active antiretroviral therapy on biomarkers of B-lymphocyte activation and inflammation. AIDS 2011; 25(3): 303-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e32834273ad] [PMID: 21192231]
[69]
Watanabe D, Uehira T, Suzuki S, et al. Clinical characteristics of HIV-1-infected patients with high levels of plasma interferon-γ: a multicenter observational study. BMC Infect Dis 2019; 19(1): 11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12879-018-3643-2 ] [PMID: 30611204]
[70]
Twizerimana AP, Mwatha J, Musabyimana JP, et al. Immunological profiles in HIV positive patients following HAART initiation in Kigali, Rwanda. East Afr Med J 2014; 91(8): 261-6.
[PMID: 26862650]
[71]
Sadeghi M, Süsal C, Daniel V, et al. Short communication: decreasing soluble CD30 and increasing IFN-gamma plasma levels are indicators of effective highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2007; 23(7): 886-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/aid.2006.0228 ] [PMID: 17678471]
[72]
Yao Y, Luo Y, He Y, et al. The effect of a year of highly active antiretroviral therapy on immune reconstruction and cytokines in HIV/AIDS patients. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2013; 29(4): 691-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/aid.2012.0275 ] [PMID: 23151174]
[73]
Sindhu S, Toma E, Cordeiro P, Ahmad R, Morisset R, Menezes J. Relationship of in vivo and ex vivo levels of TH1 and TH2 cytokines with viremia in HAART patients with and without opportunistic infections. J Med Virol 2006; 78(4): 431-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jmv.20558 ] [PMID: 16482539]
[74]
Resino S, Galán I, Pérez A, et al. HIV-infected children with moderate/severe immune-suppression: changes in the immune system after highly active antiretroviral therapy. Clin Exp Immunol 2004; 137(3): 570-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2249.2004.02583.x ] [PMID: 15320908]
[75]
Clerici M, Shearer GM. The Th1-Th2 hypothesis of HIV infection: new insights. Immunol Today 1994; 15(12): 575-81.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0167-5699(94)90220-8 ] [PMID: 7848519]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
40
4
World Immunization Week
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy