Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Pediatric Reviews

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1573-3963
ISSN (Online): 1875-6336

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Teeth: Small but Mighty and Mighty Important. A Comprehensive Review of Children’s Dental Health for Primary Care Clinicians

Author(s): Charlotte W. Lewis*

Volume 16, Issue 3, 2020

Page: [215 - 231] Pages: 17

DOI: 10.2174/1573396316666200228093248

Price: $65

Abstract

Healthy teeth allow us to eat and stay well-nourished. Although primary care clinicians receive limited training about teeth, given the common nature of dental problems, it is important that they understand and recognize normal and abnormal dental conditions and can implement primary and secondary prevention of dental conditions in their practice. PubMed has been used to search the scientific literature for evidence on the following topics: normal dental development, dental abnormalities, malocclusion, teething, dental caries and related epidemiology and prevention, fluoride, dental injury and its management and prevention; and identification, prevention and treatment of gingivitis and periodontal disease. Literature review relied on randomized controlled trials, meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and Cochrane reviews when relevant and available. Other sources of evidence included cohort and case-control studies. Consensus statements and expert opinion were used when there was a paucity of high-quality research studies. The literature has been synthesized on these topics to make them relevant to pediatric primary care clinicians, and as available, the strength of evidence has been characterized when making clinical recommendations.

Keywords: Dental development, occlusion, non-nutritive sucking, malocclusion, teething, dental caries, fluoride, traumatic dental injuries, gingivitis, periodontal disease.

« Previous Next »
Graphical Abstract

[1]
Lewis CW. Oral health and dental disordersPediatrics: A Primary Care Approach. 5th ed. Philadelphia: B.C. Sanders 2014.
[2]
Scheid RC, Weiss G. Woelfel’s Dental Anatomy. 8th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer 2012.
[3]
Warren JJ, Fontana M, Blanchette DR, et al. Timing of primary tooth emergence among U.S. racial and ethnic groups. J Public Health Dent 2016; 76(4): 259-62.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jphd.12154] [PMID: 26992441]
[4]
Leung AKC, Robson WLM. Natal teeth: a review. J Natl Med Assoc 2006; 98(2): 226-8.
[5]
Brecher EA, Lewis CW. Infant Oral Health. Pediatr Clin North Am 2018; 65(5): 909-21.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2018.05.016] [PMID: 30213353]
[6]
Massignan C, Cardoso M, Porporatti AL, et al. Signs and Symptoms of Primary Tooth Eruption: A Meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2016; 137(3)e20153501
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-3501] [PMID: 26908659]
[7]
Memarpour M, Soltanimehr E, Eskandarian T. Signs and symptoms associated with primary tooth eruption: a clinical trial of nonpharmacological remedies 2015.
[8]
Macknin ML, Piedmonte M, Jacobs J, Skibinski C. Symptoms associated with infant teething: a prospective study. Pediatrics 2000; 105(4 Pt 1): 747-52.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.105.4.747] [PMID: 10742315]
[9]
FDA recommends not using lidocaine to treat teething pain and requires new Boxed Warning 2014.https://www.fda.gov/drugs/drugsafety/ucm402240.htm
[10]
FDA confirms elevated levels of belladonna in certain homeopathic teething products 2017.https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm538684.htm
[11]
2018.https://www.fda.gov/medical-devices/safety-communications/fda-warns-against-use-teething-necklaces-bracelets-and-other-jewelry-marketed-relieving-teething
[12]
Boughner JC. Maintaining perspective on third molar extraction. J Can Dent Assoc 2013; 79: d106.
[13]
Shoshani-Dror D, Shilo D, Ginini JG, Emodi O, Rachmiel A. Controversy regarding the need for prophylactic removal of impacted third molars: An overview. Quintessence Int 2018; 49(8): 653-62.
[14]
Bruce RA, Frederickson GC, Small GS. Age of patients and morbidity associated with mandibular third molar surgery. J Am Dent Assoc 1980; 101(2): 240-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.14219/jada.archive.1980.0183] [PMID: 6931159]
[15]
Kruger E, Thomson WM, Konthasinghe P. Third molar outcomes from age 18 to 26: findings from a population-based New Zealand longitudinal study. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2001; 92(2): 150-5.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1067/moe.2001.115461] [PMID: 11505260]
[16]
2008.https://www.apha.org/policies-and-advocacy/public-health-policy-statements/policy-database/2014/07/24/14/29/opposition-to-prophylactic-removal-of-third-molars-wisdom-teeth
[17]
2016.https://www.aaoms.org/docs/govt_affairs/advocacy_white_papers/management_third_molar_white_paper.pdf
[18]
Ghaeminia H, Perry J, Nienhuijs MEL, et al. Surgical removal versus retention for the management of asymptomatic disease-free impacted wisdom teeth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2016; (8): CD003879
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003879.pub4] [PMID: 27578151]
[19]
Al-Ani AH, Antoun JS, Thomson WM, Merriman TR, Farella M. Hypodontia: An Update on Its Etiology, Classification, and Clinical Management. BioMed Res Int 2017; •••20179378325
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/9378325] [PMID: 28401166]
[20]
Lu X, Yu F, Liu J, et al. The epidemiology of supernumerary teeth and the associated molecular mechanism. Organogenesis 2017; 13(3): 71-82.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15476278.2017.1332554] [PMID: 28598258]
[21]
Lewis CW, Jacob LS, Lehmann CU. The Primary Care Pediatrician and the Care of Children With Cleft Lip and/or Cleft Palate. Pediatrics 2017; 139(5)e20170628
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2017-0628] [PMID: 28557774]
[22]
Kollmann TR, Dobson S. SyphilisInfectious Diseases of the Fetus and Newborn. 7th ed. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders 2011; pp. 524-63.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-4160-6400-8.00016-X]
[23]
Kline AH, Blattner RJ, Lunin M. Transplacental effect of tetracyclines on teeth. JAMA 1964; 188: 178-80.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1964.03060280080021] [PMID: 14172262]
[24]
Silva M, Manton D. Oral habits--part 1: the dental effects and management of nutritive and non-nutritive sucking. J Dent Child (Chic) 2014; 81(3): 133-9.
[25]
Warren JJ, Slayton RL, Bishara SE, Levy SM, Yonezu T, Kanellis MJ. Effects of nonnutritive sucking habits on occlusal characteristics in the mixed dentition. Pediatr Dent 2005; 27(6): 445-50.
[26]
Borrie FR, Bearn DR, Innes NP, Iheozor-Ejiofor Z. Interventions for the cessation of non-nutritive sucking habits in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; (3): CD008694
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008694.pub2] [PMID: 25825863]
[27]
Beltrán-Aguilar ED, Barker LK, Canto MT, et al. Surveillance for dental caries, dental sealants, tooth retention, edentulism, and enamel fluorosis--United States, 1988-1994 and 1999-2002. MMWR Surveill Summ 2005; 54(3): 1-43.
[28]
Wong A, Subar PE, Young DA. Dental Caries: An Update on Dental Trends and Therapy. Adv Pediatr 2017; 64(1): 307-30.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.yapd.2017.03.011] [PMID: 28688595]
[29]
Drury TF, Horowitz AM, Ismail AI, Maertens MP, Rozier RG, Selwitz RH. Diagnosing and reporting early childhood caries for research purposes. A report of a workshop sponsored by the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, the Health Resources and Services Administration, and the Health Care Financing Administration. J Public Health Dent 1999; 59(3): 192-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-7325.1999.tb03268.x] [PMID: 10649591]
[30]
Keels MA. Personalized Dental Caries Management in Children. Dent Clin North Am 2019; 63(4): 621-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cden.2019.06.002] [PMID: 31470917]
[31]
Dye BA, Mitnik GL, Iafolla TJ, Vargas CM. Trends in dental caries in children and adolescents according to poverty status in the United States from 1999 through 2004 and from 2011 through 2014. J Am Dent Assoc 2017; 148(8): 550-565.e7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adaj.2017.04.013] [PMID: 28619207]
[32]
Phipps KR, Ricks TL, Manz MC, Blahut P. Prevalence and severity of dental caries among American Indian and Alaska Native preschool children. J Public Health Dent 2012; 72(3): 208-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-7325.2012.00331.x] [PMID: 22515656]
[33]
Do LG, Ha DH, Roberts-Thomson KF, Jamieson L, Peres MA, Spencer AJ. Race- and Income-Related Inequalities in Oral Health in Australian Children by Fluoridation Status. JDR Clin Trans Res 2018; 3(2): 170-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2380084417751350] [PMID: 30931771]
[34]
Seo V, Baggett TP, Thorndike AN, et al. Access to care among Medicaid and uninsured patients in community health centers after the Affordable Care Act. BMC Health Serv Res 2019; 19(1): 291.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12913-019-4124-z] [PMID: 31068205]
[35]
Lewis CW, Linsenmayer KA, Williams A. Wanting better: a qualitative study of low-income parents about their children’s oral health. Pediatr Dent 2010; 32(7): 518-24.
[36]
Gomaa N, Glogauer M, Tenenbaum H, Siddiqi A, Quiñonez C. Social-Biological Interactions in Oral Disease: A ‘Cells to Society’ View. PLoS One 2016; 11(1)e0146218
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146218] [PMID: 26751953]
[37]
Mobley C, Marshall TA, Milgrom P, Coldwell SE. The contribution of dietary factors to dental caries and disparities in caries. Acad Pediatr 2009; 9(6): 410-4.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2009.09.008] [PMID: 19945075]
[38]
Ismail AI, Pitts NB, Tellez M, et al. The International Caries Classification and Management System (ICCMS™) An Example of a Caries Management Pathway. BMC Oral Health 2015; 15(Suppl. 1): S9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472-6831-15-S1-S9] [PMID: 26391116]
[39]
Vieira AR, Modesto A, Marazita ML. Caries: review of human genetics research. Caries Res 2014; 48(5): 491-506.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000358333] [PMID: 24853115]
[40]
Silva MJ, Kilpatrick NM, Craig JM, et al. Genetic and Early-Life Environmental Influences on Dental Caries Risk: A Twin Study. Pediatrics 2019; 143(5)e20183499
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2018-3499] [PMID: 31028158]
[41]
Adair PM, Pine CM, Burnside G, et al. Familial and cultural perceptions and beliefs of oral hygiene and dietary practices among ethnically and socio-economicall diverse groups. Community Dent Health 2004; 21(1)(Suppl.): 102-11.
[42]
Roberts CR, Warren JJ, Weber-Gasparoni K. Relationships between caregivers’ responses to oral health screening questions and early childhood caries. J Public Health Dent 2009; 69(4): 290-3.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-7325.2009.00126.x] [PMID: 19453868]
[43]
2014.http://www.aapd.org/media/Policies_Guidelines/G_CariesRiskAssessment.pdf
[44]
Lewis CW. Dental health in childhoodThe Encyclopedia of Primary Prevention and Health Promotion. 2nd ed. New York: Springer 2014.
[45]
Lewis MA, Carmichael F, MacFarlane TW, Milligan SG. 1993.
[46]
Paterson SA, Curzon ME. The effect of amoxycillin versus penicillin V in the treatment of acutely abscessed primary teeth. Br Dent J 1993; 174(12): 443-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.4808195] [PMID: 8518048]
[47]
Lewis CW. Fluoride and dental caries prevention in children. Pediatr Rev 2014; 35(1): 3-15.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/pir.35-1-3] [PMID: 24385561]
[48]
Pollick H. The Role of Fluoride in the Prevention of Tooth Decay. Pediatr Clin North Am 2018; 65(5): 923-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2018.05.014] [PMID: 30213354]
[49]
Dean HT, Arnold FA Jr, Jay P, Knutson JW. Studies on mass control of dental caries through fluoridation of the public water supply. Public Health Rep 1950; 65(43): 1403-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/4587515] [PMID: 14781280]
[50]
Ast DB, Smith DJ, Wachs B, Cantwell KT. Newburgh-Kingston caries-fluorine study. XIV. Combined clinical and roentgenographic dental findings after ten years of fluoride experience. J Am Dent Assoc 1956; 52(3): 314-25.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.14219/jada.archive.1956.0042] [PMID: 13294995]
[51]
Brown HK, Poplove M. The Brantford-Sarnia-Stratford fluoridation caries study: final survey, 1963. Med Serv J Can 1965; 21(7): 450-6.
[52]
Moore D, Poynton M, Broadbent JM, Thomson WM. The costs and benefits of water fluoridation in NZ. BMC Oral Health 2017; 17(1): 134.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s12903-017-0433-y] [PMID: 29179712]
[53]
Blinkhorn AS, Byun R, Johnson G, Metha P, Kay M, Lewis P. The Dental Health of primary school children living in fluoridated, pre-fluoridated and non-fluoridated communities in New South Wales, Australia. BMC Oral Health 2015; 15: 9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472-6831-15-9] [PMID: 25604625]
[54]
Slade GD, Grider WB, Maas WR, Sanders AE. Water Fluoridation and Dental Caries in U.S. Children and Adolescents. J Dent Res 2018; 97(10): 1122-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022034518774331] [PMID: 29900806]
[55]
Gillespie GM, Baez R. Development of salt fluoridation in the Americas. Schweiz Monatsschr Zahnmed 2005; 115(8): 663-9.
[56]
Marthaler TM, Petersen PE. Salt fluoridation--an alternative in automatic prevention of dental caries. Int Dent J 2005; 55(6): 351-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1875-595X.2005.tb00045.x] [PMID: 16379137]
[57]
dos Santos AP, Nadanovsky P, de Oliveira BH. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of fluoride toothpastes on the prevention of dental caries in the primary dentition of preschool children. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2013; 41(1): 1-12.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0528.2012.00708.x] [PMID: 22882502]
[58]
Walsh T, Worthington HV, Glenny AM, Marinho VCC, Jeroncic A. Fluoride toothpastes of different concentrations for preventing dental caries 2019.
[59]
2014.http://ebd.ada.org/en/evidence/guidelines/fluoride-toothpaste-for-young-children
[60]
Thornton-Evans G, Junger ML, Lin M, Wei L, Espinoza L, Beltran-Aguilar E. Use of Toothpaste and Toothbrushing Patterns Among Children and Adolescents - United States, 2013-2016. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2019; 68(4): 87-90.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6804a3] [PMID: 30703075]
[61]
Naccache H, Simard PL, Trahan L, et al. Factors affecting the ingestion of fluoride dentifrice by children. J Public Health Dent 1992; 52(4): 222-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-7325.1992.tb02277.x] [PMID: 1512747]
[62]
Chestnutt IG, Schäfer F, Jacobson AP, Stephen KW. The influence of toothbrushing frequency and post-brushing rinsing on caries experience in a caries clinical trial. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 1998; 26(6): 406-11.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0528.1998.tb01979.x] [PMID: 9870540]
[63]
Sjögren K, Birkhed D, Rangmar B. Effect of a modified toothpaste technique on approximal caries in preschool children. Caries Res 1995; 29(6): 435-41.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000262111] [PMID: 8556745]
[64]
Marinho VC, Worthington HV, Walsh T, Clarkson JE. Fluoride varnishes for preventing dental caries in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; (7): CD002279
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD002279.pub2] [PMID: 23846772]
[65]
Schwendicke F, Splieth CH, Thomson WM, Reda S, Stolpe M, Foster Page L. Cost-effectiveness of caries-preventive fluoride varnish applications in clinic settings among patients of low, moderate and high risk. Community Dent Oral Epidemiol 2018; 46(1): 8-16.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cdoe.12320] [PMID: 28682498]
[66]
Lenzi TL, Montagner AF, Soares FZ, de Oliveira Rocha R. Are topical fluorides effective for treating incipient carious lesions?: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Dent Assoc 2016; 147(2): 84-91.e1.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adaj.2015.06.018] [PMID: 26562737]
[67]
Horst JA, Ellenikiotis H, Milgrom PL. UCSF Protocol for Caries Arrest Using Silver Diamine Fluoride: Rationale, Indications and Consent. J Calif Dent Assoc 2016; 44(1): 16-28.
[68]
Wright JT, White A. Silver Diamine Fluoride: Changing the Caries Management Paradigm and Potential Societal Impact. N C Med J 2017; 78(6): 394-7.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.18043/ncm.78.6.394] [PMID: 29203603]
[69]
Crystal YO, Niederman R. Silver Diamine Fluoride Treatment Considerations in Children’s Caries Management. Pediatr Dent 2016; 38(7): 466-71.
[70]
Oliveira BH, Rajendra A, Veitz-Keenan A, Niederman R. The Effect of Silver Diamine Fluoride in Preventing Caries in the Primary Dentition: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Caries Res 2019; 53(1): 24-32.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000488686] [PMID: 29874642]
[71]
Ahovuo-Saloranta A, Forss H, Walsh T, Nordblad A, Mäkelä M, Worthington HV. Pit and fissure sealants for preventing dental decay in permanent teeth 2017.
[72]
Griffin S, Naavaal S, Scherrer C, Griffin PM, Harris K, Chattopadhyay S. School-Based Dental Sealant Programs Prevent Cavities And Are Cost-Effective. Health Aff (Millwood) 2016; 35(12): 2233-40. [Cocco F, Carta G, Cagetti MG, Strohmenger L, Lingström P, Campus G.]
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2016.0839] [PMID: 27920311]
[73]
Cocco F, Carta G, Cagetti MG, Strohmenger L, Lingström P, Campus G. The caries preventive effect of 1-year use of low-dose xylitol chewing gum. A randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial in high-caries-risk adults. Clin Oral Investig 2017; 21(9): 2733-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00784-017-2075-5] [PMID: 28303470]
[74]
Mäkinen KK, Hujoel PP, Bennett CA, Isotupa KP, Mäkinen PL, Allen P. Polyol chewing gums and caries rates in primary dentition: a 24-month cohort study. Caries Res 1996; 30(6): 408-17.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000262352] [PMID: 8946097]
[75]
Deshpande A, Jadad AR. The impact of polyol-containing chewing gums on dental caries: a systematic review of original randomized controlled trials and observational studies. J Am Dent Assoc 2008; 139(12): 1602-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.14219/jada.archive.2008.0102] [PMID: 19047666]
[76]
Aluckal E, Ankola AV. Effectiveness of xylitol and polyol chewing gum on salivary streptococcus mutans in children: A randomized controlled trial. Indian J Dent Res 2018; 29(4): 445-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4103/ijdr.IJDR_307_16] [PMID: 30127194]
[77]
Milgrom P, Söderling EM, Nelson S, Chi DL, Nakai Y. Clinical evidence for polyol efficacy. Adv Dent Res 2012; 24(2): 112-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022034512449467] [PMID: 22899692]
[78]
Rethman MP, Beltrán-Aguilar ED, Billings RJ, et al. 2011.
[79]
Jamieson LM, Smithers LG, Hedges J, et al. Follow-up of an Intervention to Reduce Dental Caries in Indigenous Australian Children: A Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Clinical Trial 2019.
[80]
Featherstone JDB, Chaffee BW. The Evidence for Caries Management by Risk Assessment (CAMBRA®). Adv Dent Res 2018; 29(1): 9-14.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0022034517736500] [PMID: 29355423]
[81]
Lam R. Epidemiology and outcomes of traumatic dental injuries: a review of the literature 2016.
[82]
Born CD, Jackson TH, Koroluk LD, Divaris K. Traumatic dental injuries in preschool-age children: Prevalence and risk factors. Clin Exp Dent Res 2019; 5(2): 151-9.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cre2.165] [PMID: 31049218]
[83]
Piccininni P, Clough A, Padilla R, Piccininni G. Dental and Orofacial Injuries. Clin Sports Med 2017; 36(2): 369-405.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.csm.2016.12.001] [PMID: 28314423]
[84]
Diangelis AJ, Andreasen JO, Ebeleseder KA, et al. Guidelines for the Management of Traumatic Dental Injuries: 1. Fractures and Luxations of Permanent Teeth. Pediatr Dent 2017; 39(6): 401-11.
[85]
Andersson L, Andreasen JO, Day P, et al. Guidelines for the Management of Traumatic Dental Injuries: 2. Avulsion of Permanent Teeth. Pediatr Dent 2017; 39(6): 412-9.
[86]
Keels MA. Management of dental trauma in a primary care setting. Pediatrics 2014; 133(2): e466-76.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-3792] [PMID: 24470646]
[87]
Güngör HC. Management of crown-related fractures in children: an update review. Dent Traumatol 2014; 30(2): 88-99.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/edt.12079] [PMID: 24118990]
[88]
Fernandes LM, Neto JCL, Lima TFR, et al. The use of mouthguards and prevalence of dento-alveolar trauma among athletes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Dent Traumatol 2019; 35(1): 54-72.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/edt.12441] [PMID: 30222244]
[89]
Mills SC. Mandatory mouthguard rules for high school athletes in the United States. Gen Dent 2015; 63(6): 35-40.
[90]
Using mouthguards to reduce the incidence and severity of sports-related oral injuries. J Am Dent Assoc 2006; 137(12): 1712-20.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.14219/jada.archive.2006.0118] [PMID: 17138717]
[91]
Lertpimonchai A, Rattanasiri S, Arj-Ong Vallibhakara S, Attia J, Thakkinstian A. The association between oral hygiene and periodontitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int Dent J 2017; 67(6): 332-43.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/idj.12317] [PMID: 28646499]
[92]
Chapple IL, Van der Weijden F, Doerfer C, et al. Primary prevention of periodontitis: managing gingivitis. J Clin Periodontol 2015; 42(Suppl. 16): S71-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jcpe.12366] [PMID: 25639826]
[93]
Yaacob M, Worthington HV, Deacon SA, et al. Powered versus manual toothbrushing for oral health. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2014; 6(6)CD002281
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD002281.pub3] [PMID: 24934383]
[94]
Worthington HV, MacDonald L, Poklepovic Pericic T, et al. Home use of interdental cleaning devices, in addition to toothbrushing, for preventing and controlling periodontal diseases and dental caries 2019.
[95]
Charles CH, Mostler KM, Bartels LL, Mankodi SM. Comparative antiplaque and antigingivitis effectiveness of a chlorhexidine and an essential oil mouthrinse: 6-month clinical trial. J Clin Periodontol 2004; 31(10): 878-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-051X.2004.00578.x] [PMID: 15367192]
[96]
James P, Worthington HV, Parnell C, et al. Chlorhexidine mouthrinse as an adjunctive treatment for gingival health 2017.
[97]
Sheiham A, James WP. A new understanding of the relationship between sugars, dental caries and fluoride use: implications for limits on sugars consumption. Public Health Nutr 2014; 17(10): 2176-84.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S136898001400113X] [PMID: 24892213]
[98]
Scheinin A, Mäkinen KK. Turku sugar studies. An overview. Acta Odontol Scand 1976; 34(6): 405-8.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/00016357609004651] [PMID: 1070906]
[99]
Chi DL, Scott JM. Added Sugar and Dental Caries in Children: A Scientific Update and Future Steps. Dent Clin North Am 2019; 63(1): 17-33.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cden.2018.08.003] [PMID: 30447790]
[100]
Rugg-Gunn AJ, Spencer AJ, Whelton HP, et al. Critique of the review of ‘Water fluoridation for the prevention of dental caries’ published by the Cochrane Collaboration in 2015. Br Dent J 2016; 220(7): 335-40.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/sj.bdj.2016.257] [PMID: 27056513]
[101]
Ran T, Chattopadhyay SK. Economic Evaluation of Community Water Fluoridation: A Community Guide Systematic Review. Am J Prev Med 2016; 50(6): 790-6.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2015.10.014] [PMID: 26776927]
[102]
Iheozor-Ejiofor Z, Worthington HV, Walsh T, et al. Water fluoridation for the prevention of dental caries. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015; (6): CD010856
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD010856.pub2] [PMID: 26092033]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
44
World Autism Awareness Day
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy