Login Register Cart 0
Generic placeholder image

Current Analytical Chemistry

Editor-in-Chief

ISSN (Print): 1573-4110
ISSN (Online): 1875-6727

Back
Journal Home About Journal Editorial Board Journal Insight Current Issue Volumes/Issues
Subscribe
Review Article

Recent Progresses in Sensitive Determination of Drugs of Abuse by Capillary Electrophoresis

Author(s): Samin Hamidi*

Volume 16, Issue 4, 2020

Page: [369 - 380] Pages: 12

DOI: 10.2174/1573411015666190115153531

Price: $65

Abstract

Background: Today, “drugs of abuse” pose serious social problems such as many crimes, medical treatment costs, and economic repercussions. Several worldwide clinical laboratories use analytical separation methods to analyze their patient samples for drugs and poisons. In this way, they provide qualitative and quantitative data on the substances in various biological matrices (e.g., urine, plasma or serum, saliva, and breath).

Methods: An extensive review of the published articles indicates that the use of Capillary Electrophoresis (CE) coupled with sensitivity enhancing methods is a very attractive area of interest in the assay of drugs of abuse.

Results: This review was prepared to have a comprehensive study on applications of sensitivity enhancing methods on the determination of drugs of abuse especially from 2007 to present. The sample preconcentration approaches almost address all methods from online preconcentration (both electrophoretic and chromatographic-based methods) to offline preconcentration. Furthermore, detection system modification and capillary column fabrications were investigated in order to increase the detection sensitivity of complex samples in CE.

Conclusion: The present review summarizes the most recent developments in the detection of drugs of abuse using CE. Although CE still has a limitation in sensitive detection, several publications in recent years have proposed valuable methods to overcome this problem.

Keywords: Capillary electrophoresis, determination, drugs of abuse, microextraction, on-line enhancing methods, sensitivity.

« Previous Next »
Graphical Abstract

[1]
Baron, D.A.; Martin, D.M.; Abol Magd, S. Doping in sports and its spread to at-risk populations: an international review. World Psychiatry, 2007, 6(2), 118-123.
[PMID: 18235871]
[2]
D’Elia, V.; Montalvo García, G.; García Ruiz, C. Spectroscopic trends for the determination of illicit drugs in oral fluid. Appl. Spectrosc. Rev., 2015, 50(9), 775-796.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/05704928.2015.1075206]
[3]
Hamidi, S.; Khoubnasabjafari, M.; Ansarin, K.; Jouyban-Gharamaleki, V.; Jouyban, A. Direct analysis of methadone in exhaled breath condensate by capillary zone electrophoresis. Curr. Pharm. Anal., 2016, 12(2), 137-145.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1573412911666150911202647]
[4]
Hamidi, S.; Khoubnasabjafari, M.; Ansarin, K.; Jouyban-Gharamaleki, V.; Jouyban, A. Chiral separation of methadone in exhaled breath condensate using capillary electrophoresis. Anal. Methods, 2017, 9(15), 2342-2350.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C7AY00110J]
[5]
Khoubnasabjafari, M.; Ansarin, K.; Jouyban-Gharamaleki, V.; Panahi-Azar, V.; Hamidi, S.; Azarmir, Z.; Jouyban, A. Methadone concentrations in exhaled breath condensate, serum and urine of patients under maintenance treatment. Iran. J. Pharm. Res., 2017, 16(4), 1621-1630.
[PMID: 29552071]
[6]
Saito, K.; Saito, R.; Kikuchi, Y.; Iwasaki, Y.; Ito, R.; Nakazawa, H. Analysis of drugs of abuse in biological specimens. J. Health Sci., 2011, 57(6), 472-487.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1248/jhs.57.472]
[7]
Baciu, T.; Borrull, F.; Aguilar, C.; Calull, M. Recent trends in analytical methods and separation techniques for drugs of abuse in hair. Anal. Chim. Acta, 2015, 856, 1-26.
[PMID: 25542354]
[8]
Saitman, A.; Park, H.D.; Fitzgerald, R.L. False-positive interferences of common urine drug screen immunoassays: a review. J. Anal. Toxicol., 2014, 38(7), 387-396.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jat/bku075] [PMID: 24986836]
[9]
Moore, C.; Crouch, D. Oral fluid for the detection of drugs of abuse using immunoassay and LC-MS/MS. Bioanalysis, 2013, 5(12), 1555-1569.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.4155/bio.13.115] [PMID: 23795933]
[10]
Blencowe, T.; Pehrsson, A.; Lillsunde, P.; Vimpari, K.; Houwing, S.; Smink, B.; Mathijssen, R.; Van der Linden, T.; Legrand, S.A.; Pil, K.; Verstraete, A. An analytical evaluation of eight on-site oral fluid drug screening devices using laboratory confirmation results from oral fluid. Forensic Sci. Int., 2011, 208(1-3), 173-179.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.11.026] [PMID: 21183299]
[11]
Musshoff, F.; Hokamp, E.G.; Bott, U.; Madea, B. Performance evaluation of on-site oral fluid drug screening devices in normal police procedure in Germany. Forensic Sci. Int., 2014, 238, 120-124.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.02.005] [PMID: 24699311]
[12]
Concheiro, M.; de Castro, A.; Quintela, O.; Cruz, A.; López-Rivadulla, M. Confirmation by LC-MS of drugs in oral fluid obtained from roadside testing. Forensic Sci. Int., 2007, 170(2-3), 156-162.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2007.03.034] [PMID: 17658709]
[13]
DiBattista, A.; Rampersaud, D.; Lee, H.; Kim, M.; Britz-McKibbin, P. High Throughput Screening Method for Systematic Surveillance of Drugs of Abuse by Multisegment Injection-Capillary Electrophoresis-Mass Spectrometry. Anal. Chem., 2017, 89(21), 11853-11861.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.7b03590] [PMID: 28981253]
[14]
Barzegar, A.; Hamidi, H. Quantitative structure-activity relationships study of potent pyridinone scaffold derivatives as HIV-1 integrase inhibitors with therapeutic applications. J. Theor. Comput. Chem., 2017, 16(05)1750038
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/S0219633617500389]
[15]
Barzegar, A.; Mousavi, S.J.; Hamidi, H.; Sadeghi, M. 2D-QSAR study of fullerene nanostructure derivatives as potent HIV-1 protease inhibitors. Physica E, 2017, 93, 324-331.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physe.2017.06.016]
[16]
Hamidi, S.; Shayanfar, A.; Hamidi, H.; Mehdizadeh Aghdam, E.; Jouyban, A. Prediction of electrophoretic mobility of analytes using abraham solvation parameters by different chemometric methods. Curr. Anal. Chem., 2017, 13(4), 325-339.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1573411012666160815101243]
[17]
Hamidi, H.; Hamidi, S.; Vaez, H. A quantitative structure-mobility relationship of organic acids using solvation parameters. J. Liq. Chromatogr. Relat. Technol., 2017, 40(19), 967-977.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10826076.2017.1398171]
[18]
Lillsunde, P. Analytical techniques for drug detection in oral fluid. Ther. Drug Monit., 2008, 30(2), 181-187.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/FTD.0b013e3181685088] [PMID: 18367978]
[19]
Dams, R.; Huestis, M.A.; Lambert, W.E.; Murphy, C.M. Matrix effect in bio-analysis of illicit drugs with LC-MS/MS: influence of ionization type, sample preparation, and biofluid. J. Am. Soc. Mass Spectrom., 2003, 14(11), 1290-1294.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1044-0305(03)00574-9] [PMID: 14597119]
[20]
Dams, R.; Murphy, C.M.; Choo, R.E.; Lambert, W.E.; De Leenheer, A.P.; Huestis, M.A. LC-atmospheric pressure chemical ionization-MS/ MS analysis of multiple illicit drugs, methadone, and their metabolites in oral fluid following protein precipitation. Anal. Chem., 2003, 75(4), 798-804.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ac026111t] [PMID: 12622369]
[21]
Robb, D.B.; Covey, T.R.; Bruins, A.P. Atmospheric pressure photoionization: an ionization method for liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Anal. Chem., 2000, 72(15), 3653-3659.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ac0001636] [PMID: 10952556]
[22]
Mazina, J.; Spiljova, A.; Vaher, M.; Kaljurand, M.; Kulp, M. A rapid capillary electrophoresis method with LED-induced native fluorescence detection for the analysis of cannabinoids in oral fluid. Anal. Methods, 2015, 7(18), 7741-7747.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C5AY01595B]
[23]
Li, Y.; Nesterenko, P.N.; Paull, B.; Stanley, R.; Macka, M. Performance of a new 235 nm UV-LED-based on-capillary photometric detector. Anal. Chem., 2016, 88(24), 12116-12121.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.6b02832] [PMID: 27595290]
[24]
Saar-Reismaa, P.; Erme, E.; Vaher, M.; Kulp, M.; Kaljurand, M.; Mazina-Šinkar, J. In Situ determination of illegal drugs in oral fluid by portable capillary electrophoresis with deep UV excited fluorescence detection. Anal. Chem., 2018, 90(10), 6253-6258.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.8b00911] [PMID: 29688694]
[25]
Zemann, A.J.; Schnell, E.; Volgger, D.; Bonn, G.K. Contactless conductivity detection for capillary electrophoresis. Anal. Chem., 1998, 70(3), 563-567.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ac9707592] [PMID: 21644754]
[26]
Kubáň, P.; Hauser, P.C. Contactless conductivity detection for analytical techniques-developments from 2012 to 2014. Electrophoresis, 2015, 36(1), 195-211.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/elps.201400336] [PMID: 25113795]
[27]
Paul, P.; Duchateau, T.; Sänger-van de Griend, C.; Adams, E.; Van Schepdael, A. Capillary electrophoresis with capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection method development and validation for the determination of azithromycin, clarithromycin, and clindamycin. J. Sep. Sci., 2017, 40(17), 3535-3544.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jssc.201700560] [PMID: 28683179]
[28]
Fracassi da Silva, J.A.; do Lago, C.L. An oscillometric detector for capillary electrophoresis. Anal. Chem., 1998, 70(20), 4339-4343.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ac980185g]
[29]
Marra, M.C.; de Castro Costa, B.M.; Munoz, R.A.; Santana, M.H.; Maldaner, A.O.; Botelho, É.D.; Coltro, W.K.; Richter, E.M. Fast determination of cocaine and some common adulterants in seized cocaine samples by capillary electrophoresis with capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection. Anal. Methods, 2018, 10(24), 2875-2880.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/C8AY00795K]
[30]
Poinsot, V.; Carpéné, M.A.; Bouajila, J.; Gavard, P.; Feurer, B.; Couderc, F. Recent advances in amino acid analysis by capillary electrophoresis. Electrophoresis, 2012, 33(1), 14-35.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/elps.201100360] [PMID: 22213525]
[31]
Rabanes, H.R.; Guidote, A.M., Jr; Quirino, J.P. Capillary electrophoresis of natural products: highlights of the last five years (2006-2010). Electrophoresis, 2012, 33(1), 180-195.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/elps.201100223] [PMID: 22147686]
[32]
Hamidi, S.; Jouyban, A. Pre-concentration approaches combined with capillary electrophoresis in bioanalysis of chiral cardiovascular drugs. Pharm. Sci., 2015, 21(2), 229-243.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.15171/PS.2015.42]
[33]
Airado-Rodríguez, D.; Cruces-Blanco, C.; García-Campaña, A.M. Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction prior to field-amplified sample injection for the sensitive analysis of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, phencyclidine and lysergic acid diethylamide by capillary electrophoresis in human urine. J. Chromatogr. A, 2012, 1267, 189-197.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2012.10.011] [PMID: 23141624]
[34]
Meng, P.; Wang, Y.; Meng, L. pH-mediated stacking in capillary electrophoresis for analysis of opiates in saliva. Anal. Methods, 2012, 4(11), 3695-3700.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c2ay25714a]
[35]
Botello, I.; Borrull, F.; Calull, M.; Aguilar, C.; Somsen, G.W.; de Jong, G.J. In-line solid-phase extraction-capillary electrophoresis coupled with mass spectrometry for determination of drugs of abuse in human urine. Anal. Bioanal. Chem., 2012, 403(3), 777-784.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00216-012-5872-3] [PMID: 22370589]
[36]
Kohler, I.; Schappler, J.; Rudaz, S. Highly sensitive capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry for rapid screening and accurate quantitation of drugs of abuse in urine. Anal. Chim. Acta, 2013, 780, 101-109.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2013.03.065] [PMID: 23680557]
[37]
Pesce, A.; West, C.; Egan City, K.; Strickland, J. Interpretation of urine drug testing in pain patients. Pain Med., 2012, 13(7), 868-885.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1526-4637.2012.01350.x] [PMID: 22494459]
[38]
Botello, I.; Borrull, F.; Calull, M.; Aguilar, C. Electrokinetic supercharging in CE for the separation and preconcentration of barbiturate drugs in urine samples. J. Sep. Sci., 2013, 36(3), 524-531.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jssc.201200690] [PMID: 23303599]
[39]
Fan, L.Y.; He, T.; Tang, Y.Y.; Zhang, W.; Song, C.J.; Zhao, X.; Zhao, X.Y.; Cao, C.X. Sensitive determination of barbiturates in biological matrix by capillary electrophoresis using online large-volume sample stacking. J. Forensic Sci., 2012, 57(3), 813-819.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2011.02034.x] [PMID: 22225534]
[40]
Quirino, J.P.; Kim, J.B.; Terabe, S. Sweeping: concentration mechanism and applications to high-sensitivity analysis in capillary electrophoresis. J. Chromatogr. A, 2002, 965(1-2), 357-373.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(01)01499-6] [PMID: 12236536]
[41]
Kadi, A.; Hefnawy, M.; Julkhuf, S.; Abounassif, M.; Mostafa, G.; Kassem, M.G.; Attia, S.; Al-Ghamdi, A. Sample stacking microemulsion electrokinetic capillary chromatography induced by reverse migrating pseudostationary phase for the quantification of phenobarbital and its p-hydroxyphenobarbital metabolite in rat urine. Analyst (Lond.), 2011, 136(13), 2858-2865.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c0an00768d] [PMID: 21607283]
[42]
Lin, Y.H.; Lee, M.R.; Lee, R.J.; Ko, W.K.; Wu, S.M. Hair analysis for methamphetamine, ketamine, morphine and codeine by cation-selective exhaustive injection and sweeping micellar electrokinetic chromatography. J. Chromatogr. A, 2007, 1145(1-2), 234-240.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2007.01.054] [PMID: 17316663]
[43]
Wang, C.C.; Chen, C.C.; Wang, S.J.; Wu, S.M. Cation-selective exhaustive injection and sweeping micellar electrokinetic chromatography for the analysis of methadone and its metabolites in serum of heroin addicts. J. Chromatogr. A, 2011, 1218(38), 6832-6837.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2011.07.086] [PMID: 21862022]
[44]
Quirino, J.P.; Terabe, S. Approaching a million-fold sensitivity increase in capillary electrophoresis with direct ultraviolet detection: cation-selective exhaustive injection and sweeping. Anal. Chem., 2000, 72(5), 1023-1030.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ac990344b] [PMID: 10739207]
[45]
Chiang, J.F.; Hsiao, Y.T.; Ko, W.K.; Wu, S.M. Analysis of multiple abused drugs and hypnotics in urine by sweeping CE. Electrophoresis, 2009, 30(14), 2583-2589.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/elps.200900067] [PMID: 19639577]
[46]
Su, H.L.; Lan, M.T.; Hsieh, Y.Z. Using the cationic surfactants N-cetyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium bromide and 1-cetyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide for sweeping-micellar electrokinetic chromatography. J. Chromatogr. A, 2009, 1216(27), 5313-5319.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2009.05.001] [PMID: 19464693]
[47]
Theurillat, R.; Thormann, W. Monitoring of threo-methylphenidate enantiomers in oral fluid by capillary electrophoresis with head-column field-amplified sample injection. Electrophoresis, 2014, 35(7), 986-992.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/elps.201300325] [PMID: 24123101]
[48]
Fang, N.; Meng, P.; Zhang, H.; Sun, Y.; Chen, D.D. Systematic optimization of exhaustive electrokinetic injection combined with micellar sweeping in capillary electrophoresis. Analyst (Lond.), 2007, 132(2), 127-134.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/B610564E] [PMID: 17260072]
[49]
Gao, Q.; Lin, C.Y.; Luo, D.; Suo, L.L.; Chen, J.L.; Feng, Y.Q. Magnetic solid-phase extraction using magnetic hypercrosslinked polymer for rapid determination of illegal drugs in urine. J. Sep. Sci., 2011, 34(21), 3083-3091.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jssc.201100634] [PMID: 21972216]
[50]
Su, H.L.; Feng, L.I.; Jen, H.P.; Hsieh, Y.Z. Determination of cocaine and its metabolites using cation-selective exhaustive injection and sweeping-MEKC. Electrophoresis, 2008, 29(20), 4270-4276.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/elps.200800167] [PMID: 18924106]
[51]
Ho, Y.H.; Wang, C.C.; Hsiao, Y.T.; Ko, W.K.; Wu, S.M. Analysis of ten abused drugs in urine by large volume sample stacking-sweeping capillary electrophoresis with an experimental design strategy. J. Chromatogr. A, 2013, 1295, 136-141.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2013.04.057] [PMID: 23683398]
[52]
Lin, Y.H.; Chiang, J.F.; Lee, M.R.; Lee, R.J.; Ko, W.K.; Wu, S.M. Cation-selective exhaustive injection and sweeping micellar electrokinetic chromatography for analysis of morphine and its four metabolites in human urine. Electrophoresis, 2008, 29(11), 2340-2347.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/elps.200700825] [PMID: 18435499]
[53]
Jong, Y.J.; Ho, Y.H.; Ko, W-K.; Wu, S-M. On-line stacking and sweeping capillary electrophoresis for detecting heroin metabolites in human urine. J. Chromatogr. A, 2009, 1216(44), 7570-7575.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2009.04.058] [PMID: 19439308]
[54]
Blas, M.; McCord, B.R. Determination of trace levels of benzodiazepine in urine using capillary electrochromatography-time of flight mass spectrometry. Electrophoresis, 2008, 29(10), 2182-2192.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/elps.200700422] [PMID: 18494004]
[55]
Zhang, Z.; Yan, B.; Liu, K.; Liao, Y.; Liu, H. CE-MS analysis of heroin and its basic impurities using a charged polymer-protected gold nanoparticle-coated capillary. Electrophoresis, 2009, 30(2), 379-387.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/elps.200800069] [PMID: 19123190]
[56]
Ramautar, R.; Somsen, G.W.; de Jong, G.J. Developments in coupled solid-phase extraction-capillary electrophoresis 2011-2013. Electrophoresis, 2014, 35(1), 128-137.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/elps.201300335] [PMID: 24114847]
[57]
Maijó, I.; Fontanals, N.; Borrull, F.; Neusüß, C.; Calull, M.; Aguilar, C. Determination of UV filters in river water samples by in-line SPE-CE-MS. Electrophoresis, 2013, 34(3), 374-382.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/elps.201200267] [PMID: 23161431]
[58]
Medina-Casanellas, S.; Tak, Y.H.; Benavente, F.; Sanz-Nebot, V.; Sastre Toraño, J.; Somsen, G.W.; de Jong, G.J. Evaluation of fritless solid-phase extraction coupled on-line with capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry for the analysis of opioid peptides in cerebrospinal fluid. Electrophoresis, 2014, 35(20), 2996-3002.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/elps.201400293] [PMID: 25074562]
[59]
Puig, P.; Borrull, F.; Calull, M.; Aguilar, C. Sorbent preconcentration procedures coupled to capillary electrophoresis for environmental and biological applications. Anal. Chim. Acta, 2008, 616(1), 1-18.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.aca.2008.03.062] [PMID: 18471478]
[60]
Baciu, T.; Borrull, F.; Neusüß, C.; Aguilar, C.; Calull, M. Capillary electrophoresis combined in-line with solid-phase extraction using magnetic particles as new adsorbents for the determination of drugs of abuse in human urine. Electrophoresis, 2016, 37(9), 1232-1244.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/elps.201500515] [PMID: 26856766]
[61]
Choi, K.; Kim, J.; Jang, Y.O.; Chung, D.S. Direct chiral analysis of primary amine drugs in human urine by single drop microextraction in-line coupled to CE. Electrophoresis, 2009, 30(16), 2905-2911.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/elps.200800829] [PMID: 19691052]
[62]
Stege, P.W.; Lapierre, A.V.; Martinez, L.D.; Messina, G.A.; Sombra, L.L. A combination of single-drop microextraction and open tubular capillary electrochromatography with carbon nanotubes as stationary phase for the determination of low concentration of illicit drugs in horse urine. Talanta, 2011, 86, 278-283.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2011.09.014] [PMID: 22063542]
[63]
Meng, L.; Wang, B.; Luo, F.; Shen, G.; Wang, Z.; Guo, M. Application of dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction and CE with UV detection for the chiral separation and determination of the multiple illicit drugs on forensic samples. Forensic Sci. Int., 2011, 209(1-3), 42-47.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.12.003] [PMID: 21194856]
[64]
Kohler, I.; Schappler, J.; Sierro, T.; Rudaz, S. Dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction combined with capillary electrophoresis and time-of-flight mass spectrometry for urine analysis. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal., 2013, 73, 82-89.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2012.03.036] [PMID: 22494520]
[65]
Alshana, U.; Göğer, N.G.; Ertaş, N. Ultrasound-assisted emulsification microextraction for the determination of ephedrines in human urine by capillary electrophoresis with direct injection. Comparison with dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction. J. Sep. Sci., 2012, 35(16), 2114-2121.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jssc.201200308] [PMID: 22730227]
[66]
Xin, L.; Rao, F.; Min, L.; Li-Ping, G.; Li, Y. Ionic liquid-based dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction coupled with capillary electrophoresis to determine drugs of abuse in urine. Chin. J. Anal. Chem., 2013, 41(12), 1919-1922.
[http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1872-2040(13)60697-0]

Rights & Permissions Print Cite
Article Metrics
28
1
1
© 2024 Bentham Science Publishers | Privacy Policy